Class 
Book. 




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CflKfRIGllT DEPOSm 



AGRICULTURE AND THE FARMING BUSINESS . 



AGRICULTURE 

and the 

FARMING BUSINESS 



o/H/ BENSON 

Agriculturist, United States Department of Agriculture 
Author, with George Herbert Betts, of Agriculture 

and 

GEORGE HERBERT BETTS 

Author of Better Rural Schools, Agriculture, etc. 



WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS 



INDIANAPOLIS. 

THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 



Copyright 1917 
'he Bobbs-Merrill Company 






PRESS OF 

BRAUNWORTH & CO. 

BOOK MANUFACTURERS 

BROOKLYN, N, Y. 



FEB 21 1917 



'CI.A455647 
^\ to / 



AUTHORS' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Acknowledgment is gratefully made to the Minister of 
Agriculture, Canada, for the illustration on page 326; the 
United States Department of Agriculture for the illustra- 
tions on pages 7^, 112, 117, 120, 123, 125, 135, 136, 143, 206, 
266, 268, 271, 272, 295, 298, 300, 400, 402, 403, 534, 536, 
560, 563, 565, 593, 596, 601, 623, 625, 627, 640; the Poultry 
Department of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture, 
pages 632, 639; the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, page 
201 ; the Washington State College of Agriculture, page 
614 ; the Colorado College of Agriculture, page 653 ; the 
Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 
pages 275, 288, 496; the College of Agriculture of Illinois 
University,, pages 454, 461, 494, 495, 591; the College of 
Agriculture of the University of Minnesota, page 621 ; the 
College of Agriculture of the University of Ohio, page 272; 
the Yakima Commercial Club of the State of Washington, 
pages 518, 608; Mr. Bert Ball, of the Crop Improvements 
Committee, Board of Trade Building, Chicago, page 743 ; 
Wallace's Farmer, Des Moines, Iowa, page 661 ; the Agricul- 
tural Department of the International Harvester Company of 
Chicago, pages 120, 132, 259, 278, 284, 290, 292 ; the James 
Manufacturing Company, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin, pages 
27, 461, 495; the Northern Pacific Railway, page 616; the 
David McKay Publishers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, page 
674 ; and Hewitt & Brown, Architects, Minneapolis, Minne- 
sota, pages 646, 647 ; the Globe- Wernicke Company, Cincin- 



AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

nati, Ohio, pages 36, 41, 52, 56; the Willys-Overland 
Company, Toledo, Ohio, and W. D. Boyce & Company, of 
Chicago, for all photographs of the automobile and its uses 
on the farm. For many of the photographs illustrating 
western agriculture we are indebted to Mr. T. J. Newbill, of 
Pullman, Washington. 



PREFACE 

This book deals with the business of farming. It at- 
tempts what has not yet been accompHshed for the farmer 
— the bringing together in one simple non-technical volume 
of a wide range of practical scientific information directly 
related to the every-day problems of the farm and home. 

Progressive farmers are everywhere proving that they 
are eager students of scientific matter bearing on agricul- 
tural practise. They are constantly seeking for the knowl- 
edge and the methods that will further their own success, 
improve agriculture and promote the general prosperity. 
They stand ready to apply what scientific investigations, 
experiments, tests and actual experience have proved to be 
sound practise and of definite value. 

Farmers as a class are very busy, and they have neither 
the time nor the requisite training to search through the 
technical scientific treatises for the information and direc- 
tions they require. The very abundance and thoroughness 
of the large quantities of reports, circulars and agricultural 
bulletins, as well as the farm journals, posters, special leaf- 
lets and what-not, are a source of confusion and often lead 
the general reader to bewilderment. 

The present volume aims to serve as a clearing-house 
for this mass of valuable scientific information, and thereby 
render it available for the farmer. It seeks to simplify in 
form and statement without reducing in scientific accuracy 



PREFACE 



the teachings and discoveries of expert authorities in the 
field of agriculture. It deals with almost every typical in- 
terest and problem to be met on the modern farm, and ap- 
plies to the discussion the proved results of scientific in- 
vestigation. It summarizes and renders easily intelligible 
much valuable material produced by agricultural colleges 
and experiment stations which, in its original form of pub- 
lication, would prove too severe a strain on the time and 
patience of the busy men and women of the farm. It pre- 
sents in plain and condensed language the results of much 
fruitful experimentation and many costly investigations 
conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture 
and the experiment stations. In short, it gathers its material 
from every available source, and undertakes to relate and 
apply it simply, directly and concretely to the practical 
problems of farming. 

It is planned that every member of the farm household 
may find something of interest and value in many of the 
chapters. The book also aims to be of equal service to 
those living in towns and cities who have dreams of a fu- 
ture country home. Nor is it forgotten that the city boys 
and girls are entitled to a knowledge of some of the oppor- 
tunities and inspirations of rural life. Through these pages 
it is hoped that many of them will be led to a more intimate 
acquaintance with the fields, the forests, the gardens and 
the birds. At the same time it is believed that their educa- 
tion will be broadened by a better knowledge of America's 
greatest industry, farming. 



PREFACE 

The book will also be of interest to the men of the shop, 
to clerks, business men and professional workers who, be- 
cause of their sedentary work, are in constant need of a 
motive for outdoor occupations. The information and 
guidance needed by such persons are here assembled in a 
form that will not require a large expenditure of money or 
of time for their acquisition. In short, it has been the desire 
of the authors so to represent the business of farming that 
all who wish a better knowledge of its problems or practise, 
whether this be for actual use or only for general informa- 
tion, will find the volume serviceable. It is also hoped that 
the broad range of information, many practical suggestions, 
and directions for practise will make the book of value in 
the schools and public libraries. 

The style and phrasing have been kept very simple and 
direct. Technical terms are almost wholly omitted. Un- 
tried theories have no place. Scientific facts are stated in 
plain language that will present no difficulty for any reader. 
It is the sincere hope of the authors that those who read 
the following pages may do so with pleasure, and that the 
lessons learned may add much to the satisfaction and profit 
from, the business of farming ! 

The Authors. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 
CHAPTER 

I Business Methods in Farming • ^ 

Wasteful Use of Soil— Need of Conserving Soil 
Fertility— The Age of Industrial Changes— New 
Interest in Agriculture— Farming as a Career. 

II Farm Management ^^ 

Planning the Farm for Profit— Type of Farming 
—The Magnitude of the Farm and Its Enter- 
prises—Farm Organization — Administration of 
Farm Enterprises— Quality of Excellence of 
Product— Ten Important Points in Farm Ad- 
ministration—Need of Specialists in Farm Man- 
agement—Ten Commandments of Agriculture. 

III Farm Office and Accounts 35 

Suggestions for Letterheads— Farm Inventory- 
Farm Office Suggestions. 

IV Corn Culture 53 

The Corn Plant— Importance of a Good Stand 
—Corn Enemies— Saving the Seed— Types of 
Corn— Raising Seed in a Selection Bed— Test- 
ing the Seed Corn — Corn Judging with Score- 
Card— Preparing Seed Corn for the Planter— 
The Seed Bed and Planting— Cuhivating the 
Corn— Harvesting and Storing the Corn— The 
^ilo— Twelve Silo Reasons—The Uses of Corn. 

V Wheat 108 

Importance of Wheat as a Crop— Types of 
Wheat— Growing the Wheat Crop— Diseases 
and Insect Enemies of Wheat — Improving 
Wheat. 

VI Oats 1^1 

Importance of the Oat Crop— Types of Oats- 
Raising the Crop — Insect Enemies and Diseases. 



CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VII Agriculture in the South 145 

Diversified Farming in the South — Crops Suit- 
able to Southern Farms — Animals Adapted to 
Southern Farming — Soil Management in the 
South. 

VIII Agriculture in Western States 162 

Western Farming Conditions — Dry-Farming — 
Dry-Farming Practise — Management of the Dry 
Farm. 

IX Farming Under Irrigation 176 

Causes of Aridity — Reclamation of Arid and 
Semi-Arid Land — Systems of Irrigation — Crop 
Management under Irrigation — Dangers from 
Over-irrigation. 

X Cotton 191 

The Cotton Region — Raising the Crop — Enemies 
of Cotton. 

XI The Potato . 205 

Potatoes as a Farm Crop — Raising the Crop — 
Improvement through Selection of Seed — Potato 
Enemies — Rules for Protecting against Potato 
Enemies. 

XII Sugar Farming 220 

The Sugar Region — Producing Cane Sugar — 
Growing Sugar Beets — Producing Saccharine 
Sorghum — Producing Maple Sugar. 

XIII Tobacco Culture 233 

The Tobacco Region — Uses and Classes of To- 
bacco — Raising the Crop — Insect Enemies. 

XIV Forage Crops 246 

Classes of Grasses — TI:e Legumes — Forage Pro- 
ducing Region. 

XV Meadows and Pastures 254 

Meadows — Pastures. 

XVI The Clovers 263 

Value of Red Clover on the Farm — The Rais- 



CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER PAGE 

ing of Red Clover — Harvesting the Red-Clover 
Crop — The Enemies of Red Clover — Other 
Types of Clover, 

XVII Alfalfa 277 

Alfalfa as a Renewer of the Soil — The Returns 
from Alfalfa — Where Alfalfa Can Be Grown — 
Raising the Crop — Harvesting the Crop — Ene- 
mies of Alfalfa. 

XVIII Other Legumes 294 

The Cow-pea — The Vetches — Soy-beans — The 
Peanut. 

XIX The Vegetable Garden 304 

Location and Soil — Plan of the Vegetable Gar- 
den — Culture of the Garden Crops — Insect Ene- 
mies of the Vegetable Garden — Plan for Small 
Home Garden — Profit from Home Canning of 
Vegetables and Fruit Purchased for Cash. 

XX The Tomato 321 

Importance of the Tomato — Varieties — Raising 
tlie Crop — Harvesting and Marketing. 

XXI Home Canning of Fruits, Vegetables, Meats 

AND Soups 328 

Home Canned Products and the Table — Canning 
Equipment — Temperature for Boiling Water at 
Different Altitudes — Containers — Making of 
Brines and Sirups — Density Terms Defined — 
Useful Tables — Reasons and Explanations for 
Use of Terms, "Scalding," "Blanching" and 
"Cold-Dipping" — Directions for Home Canning, 
Cold Pack Method — Classification of Fruits and 
Directions for Canning— Classification of Vege- 
tables and Directions for Canning — Canning of 
Windfall and Cull Apples — Apple Sirup — Tin- 
ning, Capping and Soldering, Repair Work. 



CHAPTER 
XXII 



XXIII 



XXIV 



XXV 



XXVI 



XXVII 



XXVIII 



XXIX 



CONTENTS— Continued 

PAGE 

Special Suggestions for Canning Fruits, Vege- 
tables AND Soups 363 

Fruit and Vegetable Recipes — Home Canning of 

Soups — Canning Directions. 

Culture of Fruits and Nuts 380 

The Home Fruit Garden — Commercial Citrus 
Fruit Orchards — Otlier Important Fruits of the 
South and West — Nut Farming. 

Garden and Orchard Sprays 399 

Bordeaux Mixture — Lime-Sulphur Mixture — 
Arsenate of Lead — Paris Green — Kerosene 
Emulsion — The Resin-Lime Mixture. 

Weeds 409 

Classification of Weeds — Damage Done by 
Weeds — How Weeds Injure the Farm — How 
Weeds Spread — Fighting the Weeds — A Table 
of Common Farm Weeds. 

Birds and Other Insect Destroyers .... 429 
Birds as "Policemen of the Air" — Birds Useful 
to the Farmer — Other Enemies of Harmful In- 
sects and Animals — Protecting Our Friends. 

Nature of Soil 442 

Origin of the Soil — Classes of Soil — Organic 
Matter in Soil — Texture of Soils — Structure of 
Soils — Erosion. 

Soil Fertility and Plant Growth 457 

The Soil as the Home of the Plant — Plant 
Food and Soil Fertility — Soil Nitrogen — Phos- 
phorus in Soils — Potassium in Soils — Crop Ro- 
tation and Fertility — Improvement of Sandy 
Soils. 

Soil Moisture 474 

Forms of Soil Water — Capacity of Soils of Cap- 
illary Water — Tillage and Soil Water — Soil 
Drainage. 



CONTENTS— Continued 



CHAPTER 

XXX 



XXXI 



XXXII 



XXXIII 



PAGE 



XXXIV 



XXXV 



XXXVI 



Manures as Fertilizers 488 

Value of Farm Manure — Preventing Loss from 
Manure — The Application of Manure — Green 
Manuring. 

The Use of Commercial Fertilizers .... 498 
Importance of Commercial Fertilizers — Com- 
mercial Phosphorus Fertilizers — The Use of 
Lime on Soils — Commercial Potassium Fertiliz- 
ers — Commercial Nitrogen Fertilizers. 

Farm Animals and Agriculture 513 

Work Animals — Animals that Supply Food — 
Other Animal Products. 

Cattle 520 

Dairy Cattle — Selecting Dairy Cows According 
to Tj^pe — Selecting the Dairy Cow by Milk Tests 
— Dairy Breeds — Feeding Dairy Cows — Produc- 
ing Clean Milk — Standard for Judging Butter — 
Beef Breeds — Diseases of Cattle — Judging the 
Age of the Cow by the Teeth. 

Horses 559 

The Leading Horse-Raising States — Classes of 
Horses — Breeds of Horses — Judging Horses — 
Common Defects and Unsoundness in Horses — 
How to Determine Age by the Teeth of a Horse 
— The Care of Horses — Feeding Horses. 

Swine 585 

The Pork-Producing Region — Breeds of Hogs 
— The Care of Hogs — Bill of Material — Feeding 
Hogs — Diseases Affecting Hogs — Symptoms of 
Acute Cholera — To Prevent the Introduction of 
Cholera — To Insure Your Herd against Cholera 
— Use Hog Cholera Serum — To Control Cholera 
if in Your Herd — Judging the Age of Hogs by 
the Teeth. 

Sheep 607 

Importance of Sheep on the Farm — Breeds of 



CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Sheep — Judging the Age by the Teeth — Feeding 
Sheep — Value of Mutton in the Diet. 

XXXVII Poultry 619 

Distribution of Poultry Production — Poultry 
Raising as a Farm Industry — Breeds of Chick- 
ens — Producing Chickens — Feeding Chickens — 
Producing and Marketing Eggs — Housing the 
Poultry — Poultry Diseases. 

XXXVIII The Farm Home 645 

The Farm Home and Grounds — The Plan of the 
Farm House — The Farm Kitchen. 

XXXIX The Home Grounds and Wood Lot 658 

Beautifying the Home Grounds — The Farm 
Wood Lot — Tree Enemies. 

XL Farm Implements and Mechanics ..... 667 
Importance of Implements and Tools — The 
Farmer as a Mechanic — Rope Tying and Splic- 
ing. 

XLI The Automobile and the Farmer 676 

Uses of the Automobile — Possible Dangers from 
the Use of the Automobile — Deciding about Buy- 
ing an Automobile — The Care of Automobiles — 
Driving the Car — Women and Automobiles — 
The Automobile and Good Roads — Gasoline 
Farm Tractors — The Production of Automobiles 
— Motor-Car Production in the United States. 

XLII Road Building and Maintenance 695 

Importance of Public Roads — Types of Roads — 
The Location of a Road — The Construction of 
Earth Roads — Maintenance of Earth Roads — 
Use of the King Road Drag — Road Club 
Projects. 

XLIII Extension Education and the Farmer . . . 708 
The Aim of Extension Agencies — Methods of 
Extension Work — Farmers' Institutes — Short 



CHAPTER 



XLIV 



XLV 



PAGE 



CONTENTS— Continued 

Courses or Movable Schools— The County Ag- 
ricultural Agent's Work — Agricultural Publica- 
tions. 
Extension Education by Means of Boys' and 

Girls' Club Work 732 

Purpose of Club Work— Some of the Club 
Projects Given to Groups— Results from Club 
Work— Club Leadership— Relation to Schools- 
Club Records— Application of Terms Used in 
the Boys' and Girls' Extension Work. 

Physical Health and Efficiency 748 

Rural Health and Hygiene— Factors Bearing on 
the Health of the Farm— The Farm Table- 
Farm Sanitation and Flies — Recreation and 
Health. 

XLVI Miscellaneous Information '58 

How to Remove Stains— Quantity of Seed to 
Sow Per Acre— Commodities for which Bushel 
Weights Have Been Widely Adopted— Garden- 
er's Planting Table. 



Index 



773 



AGRICULTURE AND THE FARMING BUSINESS 



AGRICULTURE AND THE 
FARMING BUSINESS 



CHAPTER I 
BUSINESS METHODS IN FARMING 

AMERICA is the land of farms, and agriculture is its 
most important and fundamental industry. All 
other occupations must go back to the soil, either directly 
or indirectly, for their support, if not for their very exist- 
ence. The success and welfare of every class of our popu- 
lation, therefore, depend on the business of farming. 

A favored land. — The United States is especially 
favored in the fertility of its virgin soil, its vast areas of 
tillable land, and its wide ranges of climate adapted to the 
growing of many crops. America leads the world in agri- 
cultural opportunity. No other people possess the advan- 
tages and natural wealth that we have in our farms. 

Wasteful Use of the Soil 

Yet the very fact that our soil is rich and our land plen- 
tiful contains an element of danger. For nature's kindness 
and prodigality have led us into carelessness in the use of 
this the most important of our natural resources. We have 
been almost criminally wasteful of the fertility of our soil. 

1 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 3 

Farming that depletes the land. — Our first care has 
been to get the largest possible returns out of a given 
amount of highly expensive labor — for land has been plen- 
tiful and cheap, while labor has been dear. In few regions 
have we learned the meaning of intensive farming such as 
must constantly be practised in most countries of Europe 
and Asia in order to feed the population. 

When more food has seemed necessary for our ever in- 
creasing population, we have only "gone West" and opened 
up vast fields of virgin territory. Often this has been done 
after robbing the eastern or southern soil of most of its 
fertility. Here the older fields have been given over to idle- 
ness for the more promising fields of the West. During the 
last three hundreds years of American history, we have been 
continually looking to the frontier states for farms and 
future homes. First, the white-covered "prairie schoon- 
ers," and, later, the railway trains have carried a sturdy 
race of pioneers toward the setting sun and this country, the 
dream of plenty. 

Our debt to the pioneer. — This constantly moving 
population has been the direct cause of the rapid settlement 
and development of many of our best agricultural sections. 
It has given us an enterprising and progressive farming 
population, — men and women consecrated to the cause of 
transforming wild prairies and untamed forests into fertile 
acres and productive fields. Everywhere they have gone 
we now find beautiful gardens, orchards and homes as 
monuments to their endurance, industry and persistence. 



4 AGRICULTURE AND 

Need of Conserving Soil Fertility 

The frontiers of this nation, however, are fast becoming 
a thing of the past. Most of our best land has already been 
opened up to settlement and divided into farms. We now 
have under cultivation the larger part of the land available to 
feed our ever-increasing population. True, there are vast 
fields of our great plains and millions of acres of forest 
land yet to be reclaimed. All this, however, will have to be 
made productive at much greater expense of money and 
energy than was required for the earlier lands now occu- 
pied by the American farmers. Most of the land in order 
to be put under tillage will require permanent and costly 
systems of irrigation. Such regions will finally be re- 
claimed by science and good business management ; for we 
need the land, and must have it. Both federal and state 
governments are even now doing all in their power to aid 
in its reclamation. But we should first of all conserve and 
use to the best advantage the land we now have under cul- 
tivation. 

Responsibility upon the farmer. — The tiller of the 
soil is one of our most important economic factors. On his 
success and prosperity the welfare of the nation depends. 
His intelligence and progress will have a far-reaching 
effect upon our entire industrial history, and will go far to 
determine our place among nations. We have no peasantry. 
American farmers, as a class, are intelligent ; they are am- 
bitious; they are men of affairs. The American farmer is 
not infrequently called upon to serve as state legislator, 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 5 

congressman or senator. From his ranks we have taken 
governors and presidents. 

The Age of Industrial Changes 

In all American industries there have recently been 
great changes. Inventions, better education and a new 
outlook upon life have led to prosperity; the farming busi- 
ness and this prosperity have worked toward greater effi- 
ciency. During the past generation, and especially during 
the past ten years, the entire face of the earth industrially 
has been making over very rapidly. New manufacturing 
machinery has been introduced, greater systems devised, 
the cost of production reduced and the amount increased. 

Advance in agriculture. — Among all of our industries, 
however, none has experienced a greater growth and de- 
velopment than the business of farming. It is no longer to 
be classed as unskilled labor, a catch-all job for the man 
who can not find an opening elsewhere. The farmer of 
to-day would find himself greatly handicapped if he 
should undertake to think and act in terms of the 
past. A generation ago one could find plenty of careless 
practitioners, but almost no practical scientists among our 
farmers ; on the other hand, there were a considerable num- 
ber known as agricultural theorists, but who knew little or 
nothing about real farm practise. Consequently, there de- 
veloped misunderstanding between the practitioner and the 
scientist. They had very little of common interest. 

The progressive farmers of to-day, however, are practi- 
cal scientists; they know how to translate scientific informa- 



6 AGRICULTURE AND 

tion into common practise. To succeed in farming, one 
must understand the care of the soil and how to conserve 
it; he must be thoroughly informed in matters of fertilizing, 
systems of rotating crops and the tillage of various soils. 
Every farmer must be a business manager, salesman, book- 
keeper and an all-around man of ability and skill. In a 
measure, the farmer must be both a bacteriologist and an 
entomologist, for unless he knows how to combat the insect 
pests and plant diseases of growing crops, trees and farm 
animals, he will sooner or later meet his Waterloo in the 
battle with these enemies. 

What the farmer must know. — Scientific breeding of 
stock and the fitting of every farm enterprise into the farm- 
ing business as a whole are of utmost importance. A man 
must understand markets and methods of marketing. The 
adjustment of time in the use of labor, machinery, animals 
and acres, so as to secure a maximum return from a mini- 
mum investment, this is most imperative in these days of 
business competition and ever increasing land and food 
values. 

The home is the true center of all farm interests and 
activities. It is to build homes that we buy our farms, 
build up our enterprises and apply our best skill in labor. 
If the farm neglects the domestic life, the happiness and 
well-being of the family, if it forgets its obligations to the 
community, the church and state, not only the farm, but 
society in general surely will sufi^cr the consequences. All 
of these relations and many others call for the greatest 
degree of intelligence, for good business sense, and for con- 



TTIE FARMING BUSINESS 7 

stant fidelity to the cause of American rural life as well as 
all-around farm efficiency. 

New Interest in Agriculture 

Recent years have shown increased and unusual inter- 
est on the part of the whole world in the business of farm- 
ing. This is not merely philanthropic, nor is it a senti- 
mental necessity. People in other occupations, particularly 
those in business and commerce, have come to appreciate 
that farming is the economic basis of every type of work 
and enterprise. All members of society to-day wish the 
farmer well, and are willing to advance his prosperity, not 
alone because they are interested in the farmer as a social 
equal and a fellow citizen, but because they recognize that 
they must ultimately go back to the tiller of the soil for 
food, shelter and practically all the comforts of life. They 
want the farmer to raise larger and better crops, produce 
more and better stock, and himself be happy and prosperous 
because of the inevitable prosperity that it brings to all 
others. 

Economic interest centered in farm. — At the present 
time \Ve are told that the American population is increasing 
many times faster than is the production of our food sup- 
plies. During the last twenty years the cost of living has 
practically doubled. If this continue for the next decade, 
it will be difficult to judge the economic and social 
consequences. It is, therefore, important that every acre 
of land in the United States be made increasingly efficient, 
to produce more and better food. And this means 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 9 

intensive farming; but this does not necessarily bar exteji- 
sive farming. 

Tliere is yet a large area of our land untouched by the 
hand of tillage. On these barren acres, which science and 
business enterprise will yet make fruitful, there is room for 
thousands of those who are now living in filth, poverty and 
obscurity in the congested centers of our large cities. But 
they must be able to possess themselves of the promised 
land — they must be trained to the business of farming. 

Unclaimed resources. — So also in the southern states, 
where the growing season is long, rainfall plentiful 
and where every conceivable kind of food will grow and 
thrive, there is only a comparatively small percentage of the 
total area of the land under cultivation. When one travels 
over these areas of untilled acres which will surely one day 
be the garden spot of America, he can not but feel that some 
very definite policy should be adopted toward offering to 
the millions of our poverty-stricken city dwellers a chance 
to work out their salvation and be better fed from the soil. 
But this can not be done simply by transferring them from 
city to open country. They must first be educated in the sci- 
ence and practise of agriculture, stock-raising and farm 
management, else they would suffer in the country as surely 
as in the city. 

Agencies to Help the Farmer 

The new interest in agriculture has resulted in the or- 
ganization of many agencies to help the farmer. The 
federal government is now spending millions of dollars 



10 AGRICULTURE AND 

every year in agricultural extension work, farm demonstra- 
tions, farm surveys, experimentation, and in scientific re- 
search in agriculture. New varieties of crops are being 
tested and new breeds of animals produced. Successful at- 
tempts are being made to control the ravages caused by 
insect and plant enemies of farm crops and animals, and 
many other lines of investigation pursued. Every state has 
its experiment station, its extension force and its college of 
agriculture, with an array of farm experts who are doing 
everything in their power to advance the interests of agri- 
culture and the farmer. The nation and the state join in 
employing farm agents, trained in both practical and scien- 
tific agriculture, to work with the farmers in the solution 
of their immediate problems. Farm bulletins are being 
printed and distributed free of charge by the United States 
Department of Agriculture and the state agricultural col- 
leges. Extension lectures and agricultural experts are going 
into every community, teaching the application of science 
to all crop and animal production. Various commercial 
organizations, bankers' associations and business . men's 
clubs are everywhere contributing generously to the ad- 
vancement of agricultural education and progress. 

New spirit among farmers. — The farmers themselves 
are in most instances responding to their opportunities and 
endeavoring faithfully to meet the many new problems that 
have been thrust upon them. Progressive farmers every- 
where are eagerly studying the scientific investigations being 
made in the field of agriculture. They are reading the 
books and bulletins, attending the agricultural short courses 



THE FARAIIXG BUSINESS 



11 




12 AGRICULTURE AND 

at the state colleges, supporting farmers' institutes, study- 
ing stock and grain judging and in every way doing their 
best to place farming upon the scientific basis that our new 
conditions demand. 

Farming as a Career 

The business of farming to-day ofifers a career second to 
none to be found among the industrial or business voca- 
tions. It has opportunities for the man of intelligence and 
ambition. It requires and rewards initiative and enterprise. 
It demands and is willing to pay for the best intellect and 
industry that our country afifords. The farmer will always 
be an important factor in American wealth and progress, 
and is destined to take still higher rank as a contributor to 
industrial and social welfare. 

It is the purpose of the present volume to aid all earnest 
and progressive farmers by supplying them with such prac- 
tical information and help as can be rendered through its 
pages. It will also furnish the city dweller who is inter- 
ested in the subject of agriculture an opportunity to make 
a careful study of many of the problems related to the 
farm, and to rural interests. This book is, therefore, dedi' 
catcd to the best interests of the American farmer. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 13 



CHAPTER II 
FARM MANAGEMENT 

FARMING, like banking or running a railroad, requires 
good business management. Not hard work alone, but 
careful planning is necessary to success. Brains are com- 
ing to be quite as essential on a modern farm as muscle. 
Nor is it enough to knoiv what to do. Many of us have 



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'-'--iM 


m 






1 



A fnrm perspective. 

enough information, but fail to put it into practise. We 
are in a sense passively progressive ; we educate our heads, 
and fill them with scientific knowledge about farming — 
but we do not always put that knowledge into practical 
use. We all need to be actively progressive ; we need to 
have the energy, ambition and business ability to organize 
and manage our farm in accordance with the best avail- 
able methods. 



14 AGRICULTURE AND 

Need for business management. — We often pride our- 
selves on being practical. But what is being practical ? 
Ex-Governor Hoard of Wisconsin, a great agricultural 
editor and successful dairyman, says : "The practical in 
agriculture is putting anything profitable into practise." 
First, we are to study, investigate, inform ourselves. But 
we do not stop here. When we discover some method of 
farming, some system of stock breeding or feeding, some 
way of marketing, or some type of farm building or machin- 
ery more profitable than the system we are now employing, 
we put our discovery into practise. This requires organisa- 
tion and administration, and these together constitute farm 
management. Many hard working, intelligent farmers fall 
short of the highest success because they do not organize 
and administer their farms; they may be called fair agri- 
culturists, but poor managers. Look about in any neigh- 
borhood, and you will find such farmers. 

Planning the Farm for Profit 

No one person can know the whole subject of agricul- 
ture or be an expert in every branch of farming. Every 
enterprising farmer may, nevertheless, easily learn how to 
prevent many of the losses that were a heavy burden on 
the generation that preceded us. When we allow the cod- 
ling moth to destroy our crop of apples because we failed 
to spray the orchard ; when we let cholera claim our herd 
of hogs because we neglected to use the serum ; or when 
clover and alfalfa fail in our soil because we did not use 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 15 

lime, the fault is ours. For we know better, and our 
fathers and grandfathers did not. With them it was lack 
of knowledge; with us, lack of business management. 

Stopping the leaks from small losses. — The well man- 
aged farm aims at securing a profit from every enterprise. 
All possible losses, large and small, are eliminated. The 
profits from one enterprise are not eaten up by the losses 
from another. Knowing that some dairy cows do not pay 
for their keep, but are mere boarders, living off the income 
from the rest of the herd, the progressive farmer will find 
out whether he has any such, and if so get rid of them. 
Knowing that not a little of our tilled land is worked at an 
actual loss, the good manager will make a study of each 
section of his cropping system and eliminate the losses. 
Every angle of the farm's work and its business will be 
watched for profits and losses — crops, animals, machinery, 
buildings, sales and purchases, and whatever else goes to 
make up the enterprises of the farm. And once a leakage 
of profits is discovered, the defective spot will at once be 
remedied by good management. 

Farm management is, then, the selection, organization 
and administration of farm enterprises, so that profits 
accrue and so that the farm is constantly built up. It con- 
sists largely of the application of business principles and 
scientific management to the farming business. When the 
mutual relations growing out of the problems of work with 
soils, crops and live stock are so combined that they build 
up a type of farming, and when with such problems we 
consider the selection of machinery, the buying of farm sup- 



16 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 17 

plies and the niarkcling of products, -sve then have the 
tyi)ical proljlcnis of farm management. 

Problems of farm management. — The most important 
problems that arise under farm management can be grouped 
under seven main heads: (1) Type of farming. (2) 
Magnitude of operations; (3) Organhation of enterprises; 
(4) Administration of activities; (5) Quality of product; 
(6) Care and tise of all products; and (7) Buying and 
selling of farm necessities and products. 

Type of Farming 

In Europe, land is high and labor cheap; in the United 
States, land is comparatively cheap and labor expensive. 
The first principle for the American farmer therefore is so 
to select his farm and organize its enterprises as to make 
the best possible use of the labor available upon it. This 
is to say that the farm enterprises should be so diversified 
as to give the largest possible number of vv^orking days dur- 
ing the year to the family, hired help, teams and machinery. 
Idleness soon eats up the profits of labor, whether it be 
man, beast or machine that is idle. 

The farmer who is a good manager does not try to 
raise every kind of crop or animal that can be produced 
on his farm. He does not even try to raise every kind that 
can be grown with profit. He has only so much time, 
labor and energy to expend, and he tries to obtain from 
these the largest profit. 

Deciding upon farm enterprises. — The good manager 
will not only take into account the nature of his soil, the 



18 



AGRICULTURE AND 



climate and length of season, but also the question of loca- 
tion and markets. For example, the farm but two miles 
from a good market-place is adapted to a different range 
of enterprises from the one that is fifteen miles distant. 
Under prevailing conditions fifteen miles' distance from 
market will make the direct sale of milk and most fruits 
and vegetables unprofitable. It will reduce the acreage of 




Well-arranged cattle yards. 

potatoes, and hinder the profitable sale of hay, straw or corn 
stover. Such a location will encourage the production of 
live stock, grain, clover seed and any other products having 
a high value for their bulk and weight. 

The degree to which intensive agriculture shall be car- 
ried on is another question that concerns the type of farm- 
ing. It is highly desirable that our acreage should pro- 
duce high yields. But it is also highly desirable that a 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 19 

day's labor shall produce the largest possible returns. Our 
farms must be managed to combine high production with 
good wage returns, and neither be allowed to cut in on the 
other. It has been carefully estimated that an acre of Iowa 
land is 22% more efficient than an acre of Bavarian land; 
but the Iowa farmer is four times as efficient as the Bava- 
rian farmer. In man efficiency, the American farmer 
should lead all mankind. And there is every reason to 
believe that this leadership will be made possible through 
the scientific study of agriculture and the application of 
good business management. 

Conservatism with progress. — It is usually a mistake 
for any one farmer to depart radically from the general 
type of farming practised in his community. The type 
that practical experience has tried and found adapted to 
the region is ordinarily most profitable. Yet certain 
changes in the type will often greatly increase the profits. 
For example, a western farmer, deeply in debt, tried to 
borrow money from a banker. The farm was producing 
nothing but grain. The banker offered to loan the money 
on condition that a part of it should be used in stocking 
the farm with a few good cows, half a dozen pigs, and a 
flock of chickens. The stock and the grain together made 
the right combination, and in five years the farmer was out 
of debt and owned his farm. In like manner many a south- 
ern cotton farmer has found that the addition of corn and 
legumes has brought him from poverty to comfort. 



20 AGRICULTURE AND 

The Magnitude of the Farm and Its Enterprises 

The size of a farm must be adapted to its particular 
type of enterprises and the number of these undertaken. 
For the great corn and wheat belt of the Middle West, a 
forty acre farm is too small for profitable farming, while 
this acreage may be wholly adequate for fruit farming, 
and far too large for intensive truck farming. The dry- 
land farmer of the semi-arid western region may require 
a section of land, and the citrus fruit grower of California 
or Florida succeed with ten acres. 

The size of the farm. — Catch-phrases, like "a small 
farm well tilled," a "farmer for every forty acres," "ten 
acres enough for a good living," may sound well, but they 
are misleading if the application is to be general. Under 
ordinary cropping conditions a small farm means little ma- 
chinery and much hard labor. Forty acres can not support 
hay loaders and stackers, gang-plows, auto trucks, manure 
spreaders and other labor-saving machinery. Both Euro- 
pean and American statistics show that small farms ordi- 
narily mean a low labor income, few comforts and no lux- 
uries for the homes, and a life of heavy toil and drudgery 
both for the farmer and for his family. 

Yet within reasonable limits the size of the business 
done on a farm is not strictly limited by the number of 
acres. A Wisconsin farmer had an eighty acre farm and 
could not buy any adjoining land. He decided to increase 
the size of his business by changing his type of farming. 
He gradually disposed of his scrub cows and replaced them 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



21 



with pure-bred. He selected corn and alfalfa as the most 
])rofitable crops to grow in connection with the dairy busi- 
ness. Alfalfa takes the place of clover, because, on this 
farm, it produces at least fifty per cent, more food per 
acre, and the yields are much more uniform. Pastures have 
entirely disappeared, because the owner has demonstrated 
that one acre of corn or one acre of alfalfa furnishes more 
feed on his farm than five acres of pasture. He has now a 
large net income from market milk and the sale of pure- 
bred Guernsey cattle. Here was a large increase in magni- 
tude of business without a change in the size of the farm. 
Management counts most. — From a farm survey by 
the United States Department of Agriculture of about six 
hundred farms in a dairy section have been taken the fol- 
lowing summaries from (1) the twenty poorest, and (2) 
the twenty best farms of from eighty to one hundred and 
twenty acres run by their owners. 

Report of Twenty Poorest Farms 
Farms 80 to 120 Acres. Average Area 99 Acres. 



RECEIPTS 

Totatoos $ 103 

Wheat 113 

Hay 244 

Other crops 56 

Cattle 225 

Hogs 18 

Poultry 84 

Eggs 102 

Milk 475 

Inventory gain 93 

Total $1,513 



EXPENSES 

Labor $ 385 

Feed 146 

Seeds 36 

Fertilizers 102 

Live stock 172 

Machinery and repairs 97 

Taxes and insurance 87 

Miscellaneous 88 

Inventory loss 93 



Total $1,206 



22 



AGRICULTURE AND 



CAPITAL INVESTED 

Land and buildings $ 8,194 

Machinery and tools 459 

Live stock 1,055 

Supplies 217 

Working capital (cash) 105 



Total $10,030 



SUMMARY 

Receipts $1,513 

Expenses 1,206 

Farm income 477 

Int. on capital at 5%__ 500 
Labor income -24 



The average crop area was 56 acres ; number of cows 
milking, 9.4 for 12 months in the year; per cent, of income 
from crops, 34 ; crop area per horse, 16.3 acres ; number of 
horses, Z.7 ; receipts per cow, $48 ; working capital other 
than land and buildings, $1,835 ; crop index compared with 
100 per cent., 84 per cent. 

Compare these unsuccessful farmers who actually gave 
$24 in labor for the privilege of farming, with twenty farm- 
ers (below) who are making an income of over $2,000 per 
year and getting house rent, milk, eggs, garden truck, fruit 
and much of their fuel besides. 

Average of Twenty Best Farms 
From 80 to 120 Acres. Average Area 101 Acres. 



RECEIPTS 

Potatoes $ 400 

Wheat 245 

Hay 335 

Other crops 89 

Cattle 360 

Hogs 105 

Poultry 92 

Eggs 159 

Milk 2,238 

Miscellaneous 130 

Inventory gain 702 

Total $4,855 



EXPENSES 

Labor : 

Feed 

Seeds 

Fertilizers 

Live stock 

Machinery and repairs. 
Taxes and insurance- 
Miscellaneous 

Inventory loss 



.$ 602 

. 408 

. 58 

. 164 

. 308 

. 311 

. 101 

. 155 

. 18 



Total $2,125 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



23 



CAPITAL 

Land and buildings $ 9.480 

Machinery and tools 974 

Live stock 2,941 

Supplies 399 

Working capital (cash) 153 



Total $13,947 



SUMMARY 

Receipts $4,855 

Expenses 2,125 

Farm income 2,730 

Int. on capital at 57o-— 697 
Labor income 2,033 



The average crop area was 63 acres ; number of cows 
milking, 20; number of horses, 5 ; receipts per cow, $106.50; 
crop acres per horse, 12.6; crop index, 117; working capi- 
tal, $4,468. 

It is entirely probable that many farmers with moderate 
sized farms could, by slightly modifying their type of farm- 
ing and general management secure greater profits than 
by buying more land. This much at least is certain : that 
it pays no farmer to undertake more than he can do well. 
Poorly prepared seed beds, poorly cultivated crops, har- 
vesting delayed because of too much work to do, will never 
pay. The wise manager drives his work, and does not 
allow his work to drive him. 

Farm Organization 

The organization of the farm is of highest importance. 
Farm organization includes such matters as the proper 
division of the farm into fields; planning a rotation of 
crops, computing the amount of each kind of crop or the 
number of each kind of stock that can be made most profit- 
able ; maintaining the right balance between crop and live 
stock production ; the determination of the proper amount 



24 AGRICULTURE AND 

and kind of farm machinery ; the seasonable distribution 
of labor, both of men and animals ; the best types and loca- 
tion of farm buildings, and other problems of like charac- 
ter. 

Problems of farm organization. — Every progressive 
farmer recognizes the importance of the right solution of 
such questions. For example, to cut a farm into the 
right number of fields of approximately equal size or equal 
productivity, at the same time providing for conveniently 
located cattle and hog pastures is no easy task. To provide 
for the right amount of each kind of feed for live stock, 
so that profits will not be reduced by buying high-priced 
grain or roughage requires careful figuring; yet it must be 
done. So to plan the farm work as to distribute the 
labor and not allow it to bunch too greatly at certain sea- 
sons demands careful planning and must be worked out if 
the highest profits are to be realized. 

The margin of profits on the average farm is so small 
that they may easily be reduced to the vanishing point by 
the feeding of idle horses, the paying of hired help asleep 
in the haymow, or the housing and up-keep of little-used 
machinery. Careful investigations show that even on well 
managed farms, the farm horses work an average of only 
three and one-half hours a day. 

The farmer needs to be something of an architect and 
landscape gardener in planning the construction and loca- 
tion of the farm buildings. The direction of the prevailing 
winds should be taken into account in guarding against 
danger from fires and to prevent the carrying of disagree- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 25 

able smells to llie house. The well must be located so that 
it will be convenient and yet escape pollution. Barns must 
be so placed with reference to one another and the distance 
between them that no unnecessary steps need be taken or 
time lost. The whole plan must look attractive and busi- 
nesslike when it is carried out ; for these are things through 
which the farmer advertises his business ideas and ability 
to the community. 

Administration of Farm Enterprises 

Organization of farm enterprises and the outlining of 
definite plans only mean getting ready to operate ; admin- 
istration controls and directs the enterprises when tliey are 
in operation. Organization plans for a season, a year, a 
life-time, all at the same time; administration must be 
on the job every day carrying these plans into execution. 
Organization provides for the seasonal distribution of 
labor; administration directs the labor to secure the largest 
profits. 

Problems of farm administration. — Good administra- 
tion of farm enterprises keeps men and horses constantly 
busy at profitable work, as far as is possible, regardless of 
weather and season. It superintends the proper prepara- 
tion of the soil ; careful cultivation and harvesting of crops ; 
breeding, feeding and housing of live stock ; and the pre- 
vention of losses from insect enemies and plant and animal 
diseases. Administration sees to the skilful buying and 
selling of pure-bred live stock, the successful marketing of 
general farm products, the care and repair of machinery, 



26 AGRICULTURE AND 

buildings and fences, the keeping of expenses lower than 
income, and the successful financing of the farm as a busi- 
ness unit. 

The farmer must know how to buy and sell. The pay- 
ing of too much or selling for too little will make all the 
difference between farming at a loss and farming at a 
profit. The real administrator is therefore a student of 
values. He is a judge of the quality of supplies to be 
bought for the farm, and he knows what these should cost. 
The parcel-post and rural-mail delivery make the farmer 
in a measure independent in many lines of supplies where 
these can not be bought at local markets. The good farm 
administrator knows how and when to sell his products. 
He understands the factors affecting market conditions, and 
studies crop reports with reference to probable market 
prices. He is able to figure the shrinkage on stored grain 
or roughage and compute whether it will pay to hold for a 
higher price or sell earlier at a lower figure. Not to inform 
yourself on such problems as these and make their solution 
a part of the administration of your farm is to invite less 
than full returns for your labor. 

Looking after machinery. — The successful adminis- 
trator looks after his machinery. As each machine is 
needed, it is found to be in a state of repair and ready for 
operation. Machines are not left out-of-doors exposed to 
the weather when not in use. Rust and rot are allowed 
to take no toll from the life and service of plows, reapers, 
wagons, hay loaders and the like. Their housing is as 
much a matter of concern as the housing of the live stock. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 27 

A self-binder, a hay rake or a plow standing for weeks 
or months out in the field where it was last used is about 
the best advertisement a farmer could make of the inef- 
ficiency of his administrative ability. 

The management of hired help is one of the most dif- 
ficult of all farm problems. Particularly is this true when 





Good UiariiiiK'iy 1^ ;i lU-ijiitable iiiveMiiK'ia. 

a rush season demands that extra help be secured. No 
longer do we depend on "exchanging work" or calling in 
the neighbors' boys to help us out. Not infrequently are 
we obliged to employ tramp help, who have no interest in 
the work, and little sense of honor in earning their hire. 

The problem of hired help. — No one is ready to offer 
a solution for the hired help problem. Its solution should 
aim at full justice both to employer and laborer, and will 



28 AGRICULTURE AND 

include the fair and respectful treatment of help. The em- 
ploying of help for the entire year or even a series of years 
is important; the catch-job or seasonable employment of 
labor is disastrous to all concerned. The small but com- 
fortable tenant house with vegetable garden and chicken 
yard attached has been found by many farmers to be a 
paying investment, as it has often enabled them to secure 
good, substantial, married men at reasonable wages. This 
may, in a measure, help in the final solution of this most 
difficult problem. Certain it is that the farmer's family is 
entitled to a home life all their own. This can not be se- 
cured with a lot of hired help living in the same house. 

Quality or Excellence of Product 

He who can make two blades of grass grow where but 
one grew before has been called the benefactor of his race. 
The world must have food and clothing. These must come 
from the farm. All are vitally interested in the farmer's 
success. Every one wants his acres to double their yield, 
and his animals to increase their output of goods and cloth- 
ing. The serious-minded farmer realizes his responsibil- 
ity. He wants to increase his own profits to be sure, but he 
also wants to fulfill his responsibility to those who must 
be fed and clothed. Besides this, the truly progressive 
farmer is prompted by a spirit of artistry. He wants to 
play the game to win. He is not satisfied with small returns 
or with poor products, because it is in him to do better and 
he is ashamed to do less than his best. 

Maximum returns. — In many respects large crop 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 29 

yields arc desirable ; yet there is such a thing as increasing 
the yield beyond the point of profit. The farm records on 
file in the United States Department of Agriculture indicate 
that, under present conditions, a ten to twenty per cent, 
increase above the average gives minimum returns. Effi- 
cient farming depends very largely on getting this increase 
by improving the quality of the various farm enterprises. 
In a recent survey of a hundred farms in a northern dairy 
district, the survey records showed very good crops but 
exceptionally poor cows. In round numbers the average 
value of these cows was forty dollars and the average 
income per cow fifty dollars. In that region it costs about 
seventy-five dollars per year per cow for feed and care. 
Here was a direct loss of twenty-five dollars a year on each 
cow kept in that district. As might have been expected, 
low or minus labor incomes were almost universal. 

We hear many uncomplimentary things said about the 
unprofitable dairy cow, the "boarder cow" that is sup- 
ported from the profits of the remainder of the herd. On 
many farms the unprofitable dairy cow is not the only 
"boarder." Low yielding acres, like boarder cows, are often 
fatal to successful farming. Recent farm survey records 
show that areas of poorly drained, compact and sour soils, 
or soils low in humus, greatly reduce net profits and are a 
frequent cause of low labor income. These records show 
that sometimes as much as thirty per cent, of the entire 
farm acreage does not produce enough to pay its way. 

Making every part of investment yield its share. — 
One farm, on which records were recently taken, has forty 



30 AGRICULTURE AND 

acres of poorly drained land that in its present condition is 
practically worthless. Twenty-five dollars per acre spent 
in drainage will make this forty-acre tract the equal of any 
in that district, and good land is selling there at one hundred 
fifty dollars per acre. 

The successful business man always tries to weed out 
all unprofitable enterprises and to expand those that pay a 
profit. Unprofitable acres can not always be disposed of so 
readily as boarder cows, but usually they can be improved 
until they become profit bearing. If the income from such 
land can not be increased, it is quite possible that the labor 
spent upon it can be reduced until the income at least pays 
a little more than the cost of labor. 

Ten Important Points in Farm Administration 

Doctor W. J. Spillman, of the office of Farm Manage- 
ment, United States Department of Agriculture, gives the 
following factors as underlying successful farming: 

1. Low real estate prices for the land cultivated. 

2. Production of commodities for which the supply is less 

than the demand. 

3. Management of the business on as large a scale as capital 

and managerial ability will permit. 

4. Production of commodities of the higher quality. 

5. A reputation for reliability. 

6. Location for good markets, and ability to buy and sell 

profitably. 

7. Keeping only animals of highest productive capacity. 

8. Large yields with relatively little labor and fertilizer. 

9. Producton at low cost. 

10. Production of staple commodities for permanent profits. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



31 



Need of Specialists in Farm Management 

Enough has been said even in this brief discussion to 
show that farm management is no simple problem. Yet the 
problems of farm management must be met by every 
farmer. The nearer a farmer can be a specialist in farm 
management, the greater his chances of success. The farm- 
er of the future will be an educated man. Successful 
farmers of to-day are educated men, — not always in books, 




It pays to l)uild good fences. 

but not all education comes from books. To know how 
to work out a proper balance between various crops and 
live stock, to understand organizing, equipping and admin- 
istering a farm, to be familiar with the various soils and 
know how to conserve their fertility, — ■ to know the best 
systems of marketing and buying, — and knowing all these 
things, to he able to do them, requires as much mental 
keenness and executive ability as to run a bank, administer 
a church or manage a large law practise. Every farmer 



32 AGRICULTURE AND 

should strive to become efficient in farm management, for 
upon the principles of good management hang most of the 
law and the profits. 

Ten Commandments of Agriculture 

The following ten commandments for southern agricul- 
ture as taught by the late Doctor Seaman A. Knapp, will 
be of value to all who are interested in farm management. 
Doctor Knapp says: 

"At an early period it was found necessary to evolve from 
the mass of ethical teaching a few general rules for living, 
called 'The Ten Commandments,' by which a man could be 
moral without going through a course of theology. Just so, in 
order to instruct the average farmer how successfully to con- 
duct his farm operations so as to secure a greater net gain from 
the farm, it is necessary first to reduce from the mass of agri- 
cultural teachings a few general rules of procedure. They are 
called 'The Ten Commandments of Agriculture,' by the practise 
of which a man may be a good farmer in any State without 
being a graduate from a college of Agriculture." 

1. Prepare a deep and thoroughly pulverized seed bed, well 
drained; break in the fall to the depth of eight, ten or twelve 
inches, according to the soil, with implements that will not 
bring too much of the subsoil to the surface (the foregoing 
depths should be reached gradually). 

2. Use seed of the best variety, intelligently selected and 
carefully stored. 

3. In cultivated crops, give the rows and the plants in the 
rows a space suited to the plant, the soil and the climate. 

4. Use intensive tillage during the growing period of the 
crops. 

5. Secure a high content of humus in the soil by the use of 
legumes, barnyard manure, farm refuse, and commercial fer- 
tilizers. 

6. Carry out a systematic rotation with a winter cover crop 
on southern farms. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 33 

7. Accomplish more work in a day by using more horse- 
power and better implements, 

8. Increase the farm stock to the extent of utilizing all the 
waste products and idle lands of the farm. 

9. Produce all the food required for the men and animals on 
the farm. 

10. Keep an account of each farm product, in order to know 
from which the gain or loss arises. 

The following summary of farm management principles 
taken from Bulletin 4 of the Wisconsin Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, is of especial interest in connection with 
the study of this chapter: 

WITH EVERY TON OF GRAIN SOLD 

At the Elevator At the "Yards" as At the Creamery 

the farm loses: meat animals, as butter fat, 

5 to 6 dollars the farm loses: the farm loses: 

in fertility. 1 to 1.20 dollars 20 cents 

in fertility. in fertility. 

EXCLUSIVE GRAIN FARMING MEANS 

1. Selling the farm by the wagon load. 

2. Uncertain returns and, in the end, crop failure. 

3. More and more ditches and gullies. 

4. I'^nsteady employment of men and reduced labor efficiency. 

5. Sale of unfinished products and hence lower prices. 

6. More tenant farmers. 

7. More temporary agriculture ("unless soil is artificially fer- 

tilized or green manuring practised). 

PROFITABLE MEAT PRODUCTION MEANS 

1. Keeping on the farm much of the fertility produced. 

2. Crop insurance and increased returns. 

3. Better use of untilled land. 

4. Better help and better distribution of labor. 

5. Manufacture of crops into meat. 



34 AGRICULTURE AND 

6. More farms operated by owners. 

7. More permanent agriculture. 

PROFITABLE DAIRYING MEANS 

1. Enriching the soil. 

2. A regular income and a growing bank account. 

3. Fewer gullies and ditches and land made more tillable. 

4. Steady employment of labor and better men. 

5. Manufacture of high-priced finished products, better prices 

and higher returns. 

6. Better business methods and, in the end, land ownership. 

7. More permanent agriculture. 

(We are indebted to J. C. McDowell, Office of Farm Management, 
for some valuable sugg-estions in the above chapter.) 



TTTE FARMING BUSINESS 35 



CHAPTER III 
FARM OFFICE AND ACCOUNTS 

THE business of farming, like every other business, 
requires intelligent planning, organization, business 
management and the keeping of definite records and 
accounts. All of this emphasizes the necessity of 
the farm office, conveniently arranged and adequately 
equipped for the intelligent handling of all business papers, 
plans, records, accounts and correspondence in connection 
with the buying, selling and advertising of farm products. 

The farm office. — Every architect or owner,* when 
planning a farm home, should definitely provide for a 
well lighted, properly ventilated office as well as for 
such rooms as parlor, bedrooms, bathrooms and the 
kitchen. The office need not be large, but may be any- 
thing from a six by eight foot den to a roomy office 
accommodating the business of a large, well organized 
ranch afifording managers, foremen, experts, etc. 

Whenever possible the farm office should be planned 
as a separate room aside from the family library, and may 
be maintained for business purposes only; It should be a 
convenient place that will permit the farm manager or the 
home manager to go for business Interviews or business 
thinking and planning. Such a place need not be extrava- 



36 



AGRICULTURE AND 



gantly furnished and equipped ; a small room with an ex- 
penditure of from fifty to one hundred and fifty dollars 
will serve. If a separate room is impossible, then a part 




A farm office. 



or corner of another room, preferably the family library, 
should be provided. 

When planning a new farm-house it is always cheaj^er 
and more satisfactory to arrange for the office and build 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



Z7 



library case, filing space and a place for the safe into the 
inner wall of this room. 

Furniture and equipment. — The amount and quality 
of office furniture and equipment will, of course, depend 
upon the size of the business, as well as the available funds 
for such purpose. Size and amount of furniture must 




Filinj; cnse for letters, clippings, etc. 



A deslc tray. 



be carefully planned to accommodate the size of the busi- 
ness — a farmer with a small business may need but very 
little furniture and only a convenient corner of some room, 
while the large farm may need a great deal more and a 
good-sized office. If the farmer and his sons are handy 
with tools, and trained in the art of woodcraft, then all of 
the furniture can be made at home with but little cost for 
material. It will cost no more to have furniture, walls, 
rug and wall pictures harmonize in both color and design. 
The combination library desk is not a piece of furniture for 
a farm office, as it has neither strength nor convenient 
space for desk work required in such a place of business. 
A good-sized, flat-top desk, or the new sanitary roll-top 



38 ' AGRICULTURE AND 

desk illustrated in this chapter, is both convenient and 
practical. If funds are not available for the purchase of 
new furniture, excellent second-hand office furniture can 
often be purchased at a saving of from fifty to seventy-five 
per cent, of original cost. 

We suggest in the following an itemized statement of 
furniture and supplies needed for a complete office and the 
probable cost of same if purchased new. 

Quantity Items — Furniture and Supplies Cost 

Flat or roll-top desk $ 25.00 

Swivel chair (for desk) 5.00 

Small rug 5.U0 

Desk tickler 1.00 

4 section (top and bottom bookcase) 12.00 

Doz. Farm Reference Library 12.00 

Dictionary 1.25 

Extra chair or rocker 2.50 

Box letter files, (g,30 3.60 

Ledger 1.00 

Cash book 1-00 

Plan book 1.00 

General record book 100 

Pencil sharpener 1.00. 

Small safe 10.00 

General supplies — Letterheads, envelopes, pen- 
cils, ink, etc. 4.50 

Blotter pad LOO 

Stationery box LOO 

Typewriter and stand 50.00 

Wall pictures, farm scene 3.00 

Farm name seal LOO 



Total cost $142.85 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



39 



The above list without typewriter, safe, rug and sectional 
bookcase would only cost $65.85. An expenditure of 
this kind would be a good investment, as it would offer 
"first aid" to the much neglected business side of farming 
and would encourage better planning of farm enterprises 
and would facilitate farm management. 

Farm name and stationery. — Every well managed 
farm, regardless of size, should have a name, and this name 




Small desk "tickler." 

and the quality of farm products, stock, etc., should be 
inseparably known. The following names are suggestive: 
Prairie Del Poultry Farm, Meadow Lark Grain Farm, 
Blue Ribbon Dairy Farm, Babies' Milk Farm, Hickory 
Grove Stock Farm, White Plains Pony Farm, Franklin & 
Son's Fruit Farm, Science Hill Nut Farm. The name 
should mean something and should, of course, have adver- 
tising value in connection with the sale of the farm 
products. Every farmer will want to have his own sta- 



40 AGRICULTURF. AND 

tionery, printed-to-order letterheads and envelopes, and a 
trade-mark or farm seal bearing the trade-mark and name 
of farm. 

Suggestions for Letterhead 

Every Chick a Pure Bred Every Chick a Live One 

MEADOW LARK EGG-CHICK FARM 
O. B. HERMAN & SON, 

Eggville, 111., 



Envelope 



After five days return to 

MEADOW LARK FARM 

Eggville, 111. 



A seal bearing the name and trade-mark may be secured 
from almost any regular office supply company. A rubber 
stamp of the seal will cost from seventy-five cents to two 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



41 




A complete coiubinatiou file. 



42 AGRICULTURE AND 

dollars. A regular official seal will, of course, cost more. 
Sticker seals are as a rule desirable and not very expen- 
sive virhen purchased in quantities and can be used on eggs, 
boxes, tags, labels, etc., in marketing of all products. 

Farm records. — Such form records as the following 
will be of great value in the management of a farm : Litter 
Records, Breeding Records, Dairy Cow Records, Birth, 
Name and Pedigree Records of fann animals; Feeding 
Records; Records of Planting and Harvesting of Farm 
Crops ; Milk and Butter Fat Records ; Egg Laying Records ; 
Records of Names and Addresses for buying and selling 
purposes, and records of all engagements, both business 
and social. 

A special record book should be provided for the home 
manager and it should show definitely the household ex- 
penses, such as, food, clothing, education, charity and recrea- 
tion and other costs for the entire family. The keeping of 
these records and accounts by the wife and daughter is 
important in the business of farming and for the mainte- 
nance of the proper balance of the home expense with that 
of all farm enterprises. 

LITTER RECORD, Herd of P. O Litter No , 19 

Date of birth Sire Dam 

No. pigs born Reg. No. Reg. No. 

No. pigs raised Herd No. Herd No. 

Herd numbers of pigs 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 



TTIE FARMING BUSINESS 43 

DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUALS 



BREEDING RECORD OF INDIVIDUAL ANIMAL 
Herd of P. O Herd No 

Name Sire Dam 

Reg. No. Reg. No. Reg. No. 

Date of birth Herd No. Herd No. 



44 AGRICULTURE AND 

Animal P.red to — 



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Remarks. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



45 



The farmer who desires to keep track of the amount of 
labor going into each of his farm enterprises will find a 
record form like the following helpful. In most cases it 
will probably not be necessary to keep up such a record 
constantly, but such a system followed for several months 
will give a better idea of the labor cost of dififerent classes 
of farm animals, or the status of the farm home as a 
business and social unit. 

TABLE SHOWING HOURS (OR TIME SPENT) OF MAN 
LABOR IN CONNECTION WITH FARM ANIMALS 





Horses 


Cows 


Poultry 


Hogs 




Hrs. 


Min. 


TTrs. 


Min. 


Hrs. 


Min. 


TTrs. 


Min. 


May 1 

May 2 

May 3 

May 4 

Etc. 


IJ-^ 


30 


4 


30 





45 


1 


10 



If horses are used in the chore work, extra columns must 
be ruled under each heading to provide a place for the entry 
of hours and minutes of horse labor. 



A simple time record or card for hired help, indicating 
the enterprises to be charged with their services can be 
ruled like the following: 



46 



AGRICULTURE AND 



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' THE FARMING BUSINESS 47 

Of course no set or type of farm records are alike 
applicable to all farms. They must be changed to accom- 
modate the different enterprises and divisions that charac- 
terize the business. The forms given may easily be 
adapted to different needs. 

Farm accounts. — A course in bookkeeping and farm 
accounting is not necessary in order to succeed in farm ac- 
counts, and in this way through the farm office to have 
all values, expenses, receipts and balances properly kept and 
well understood at all times. Every farmer with ordinary 
ability can learn to keep all these accounts by making a 
careful study of this chapter and then practising for a 
few evenings in making the records, inventories and ac- 
counts as suggested by the forms shown. Take blank paper, 
rule to proper form, then apply to the business of your 
own farm and see if you can not master in a comparatively 
short time the bookkeeping work essential to good farm 
management. 

The inventory. — ^The first duty in all farm accounting 
is the making of the "Inventory." This, of course, should 
be taken at the beginning of the year in a separate book 
and should show the amount of crops, grain, stock, machin- 
ery, supplies, etc., and their cost or the actual value when 
inventory is taken. Then from ledger and cash-book rec- 
ords it will be possible to strike a balance at the end of the 
year and know exactly the financial standing of the farm, 
its profit or loss for the year. It will also form an intelli- 
gent basis for the betterment of all farm enterprises or the 
reorganization of the farm in case it is found necessary. 

The following inventory form and inventory balance 



48 AGRICULTURE AND 

sheet will show how to handle this part of the business 
of farming. The forms are the same or similar to those 
shown in Farmers' Bulletin No. 311, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

Farm Inventory 

Name of Farm 

Amount Date 

Acres of land @ $ 

Rods of 4 wire fence @ 

Rods of hog tight fence @ 

Head of horses @ 

Head of cows @ 

Head of other cattle @ 

Head of hogs @ 

Poultry @ 

Sets of harness (r? 

Vehicles @ ^ 

Auto truck @ 

Farm machinery (<l 

Tons hay @ 

Bushels corn @ 

Bushels wheat @ 

Bushels oats @ 

Bushels potatoes @ 

Bushels apples @ 

Other farm products 

Household furniture 

Total 



TTTE FARMING TJUSTXESS 49 

Inventory and Statement 

Amount Date 

10 horses $1,415.00 

21 dairy cows 810.00 

14 hogs 380.00 

250 chickens 100.00 

Farm machinery 319.00 

Auto truck 600.00 

Silo 275.00 

Harness and fiy nets 48.00 

Hay and ensilage 200.00 

1400 bushels corn @ 50c 700.00 

20 bushels seed corn @ $2 40.00 

600 bushels of oats @ 45c 270.00 

2 straw stacks 15.00 

40 bushels potatoes @ 60c 24.00 

Cash in State Bank of Indianapolis 252.56 

Cash on hand 6.50 

$5,455.06 



Bills and rent not paid $ 318.00 

Notes not paid 256.62 

Balance on silo not paid 100.50 



675.12 



Balance Jan. 1, 1919 $4,779.94 

Balance Jan. 1, 1918 $2,391.88 



Gain from Jan. 1, 1918, to Jan. 1, 1919 $2,388.06 

The inventory should be carefully taken again at the 
close of the year's business, and it should always include 
the cash on hand, bills payable and bills receivable, oi- all 



50 AGRICULTURE AND 

items due you as well as all items due others. This will, of 
course, make it possible for one to know the total gain or 
loss of the business for the year. 

The ledger and cost accounts. — The ledger is one of 
the important account books for the farm business, in fact 
it is the one book that may contain all necessary records, 
plans and accounts, including inventories and annual state- 
ments of the business. It is, however, desirable to have 
different books, which may be of uniform size and form and 
all blank, so that they may be named and classified or ruled 
to accommodate the four special divisions of records and 
accounts. The books may be denominated as follows : 
(1) farm records; (2) ledger; (3) cash book and (4) 
plan book. The ledger, when used as one of the set of 
four books, should contain the following accounts — all per- 
sonal debit and credit accounts, accounts with all farm 
animals, crops, household expenses, buying and selling 
agencies, groceries, etc. 

Debit all accounts when cash goes out and credit the ac- 
count when cash comes in. When keeping a regular cash 
account you reverse the order, or debit all cash received and 
credit when paid out. When keeping a ledger account place 
debit items on left hand column or left-hand page of book ; 
all credit items are placed to the right of book or page. 
The following illustrates the correct entry of items with a 
corn account : 



THE FARAONG BUSINESS 51 

Ledger— Left CORN. Dr 

I9I6 

Jan. 20 To 10 bu. seed corn 40 00 

" 30 " shelling seed 2 days 4 GO 

May 6 " plowing, etc. 30 00 

July 15 " cultivating 19 00 

Oct. 10 " field selection 12 00 

Nov. 20 " husking 10 days 34 00 

" 24 " corn crib repairs 18 00 

Dec. 16 " hauling 28 00 

" balance 2795 00 

29S0 GO 

Ledger — Right Cr 
I9l6 

Aug. 8 By 2 ton fodder 16 00 

Nov. 28 " 32 bu. seed corn @ $3 96 00 

30 " 280 bu. @ 60c 168 00 

Dec. 20 " 54U0 bu. corn @ 50c 2700 00 

2980 GO 

It will be noted that the balance, $2,795.00, represents 
the gain on the corn crop without relation to investment, 
and is found by adding the debit and credit columns and 
finding their difference. If the debit side is the lighter 
the balance shows a gain; if the credit side is lighter, the 
balance represents a loss. After adding the balance to 
the lighter side, the totals of both columns should be the 
same. 

In precisely the same way accounts with the creamery, 
lumber company, dairy, orchard, home garden, hogs, sheep, 
etc., are kept. 

Instead of a ledger book, some farmers prefer keeping 
their farm accounts on specially prepared account forms 
or blanks, put up in tablet form or in the shape of filing 
cards with index iruides. 



52 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Pocket record book. — The most important single 
thing in connection with the keeping of farm records and 
accounts, is to be in a position to note down in a small 
pocket record hook or memorandum each item or transac- 
tion as it occurs. A neglect to do this usually results in a 




Handy letter files for 
farm office. 



Sliowing shelf-typewriter 

arrangement when 

not in use. 



neglect of the business end of farming or in the keeping 
of inaccurate accounts. In the evening or at the end of 
each week, the farm manager may enter all items in the 
cash book, office ledger and record book. 

The cash book. — Every business man in shop or on 
the farm should keep a cash account, and in this way keep 
acquainted with his cash deposit or checking balance at 
the bank. The local bank with its check book system and 
conveniences is an advantage to every patron, as in this 
way farmers are able to keep constantly informed, and at 
the same time transact practically all business by the use 
of personal checks and without the necessity of keeping 
on hand large sums of money. The stubs of the checks 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 53 

should serve as receipts and at the same time offer a check- 
ing system against the cash accounts, whether they are kept 
in the ledger or in a separate cash book. The cash book 
should be used for cash items only and should be used in 
connection with the bank check book, stubs and cancelled 
vouchers returned by the bank. These should correspond 
to the cash book balances. 

All cash received constitutes debit items and should be 
entered on the left-hand side or page ; all cash paid out con- 
stitutes credit items and belongs on the right-hand side. 
The following forms illustrate two practical methods em- 
ployed by successful farmers all over the country. 

Old Form, Debit and Credit on Same Page 

CASH. 
CR (Right) Item Rec'd 

1916 

Jan. 1 Cash on hand 480 60 

10 Sold hogs, 22 186 40 

27 " eggs, 4 dz. @ 30c 1 20 

Feb. 1 Cream check 62 00 

IS Sold 6 cows 300 00 

25 •• 400 bu. corn @ 50c 200 00 

DR (Left) Item Paid 

M o. 
1916 

Jan. 2 Pd. clothing 16 00 

9 " lumber 86 OO 

" 16 " groceries 6 50 

" 26 " repairs auto 9 80 

Feb. 2 " labor 25 00 

7 " coal and gas - 16 25 

The cash on hand or ovcrdraivn at the bank is shown 
bv the difference between the credit and debit totals. 



54 



AGRICULTURE AND 



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THE FARMING BUSINESS 55 

In a similar way all credit items are entered on the sec- 
ond, or right-hand page and show what has been paid out 
on all items, such as garden, poultry, dairy, hogs, corn, etc. 

The plan book. — A very practical and helpful book for 
the farm office is a general plan book in which drawings, 
farm and field maps, designs, etc., may be made. The farm 
manager will need to make definite plans with a view to 
both the present and the future development of the farming 
business. This will include such matters as systems of crop 
rotations for the permanent upbuilding of the soil, arrange- 
ments of fields, meadows and pastures, planning of drain- 
age or irrigation systems, laying out of wood lots, orchards, 
gardens, playgrounds for children, and the making of a 
farmstead plan for the convenience of the entire family for 
both the present and the future. All these plans should be 
worked out carefully during the winter months, stormy 
days and slack periods, with a view to giving both time and 
opportunity for study and investigation, with a proper use 
of the business library. The plan book may also be used 
for the assembly of illustrations, clippings, drawings and 
photos, all of which will furnish helpful material and sug- 
gestions for the work in farm and home planning. 

The typewriter. — A typewriter is a very convenient 
and helpful part of the office equipment. Every farmer 
can with a little practise, learn to operate a typewriter and 
in this way get out important business letters, statements, 
contracts, etc., in a businesslike Avay. If the farmer can 
not afiford to purchase a new machine, he may be able to 



56 



AGRICULTURE AND 



get for twenty or forty dollars a second-hand or slightly 
used machine which will serve the purpose quite as well. 

The business library. — Every farm office should have 
a business library ; this library may be assembled with but 
little expense and trouble. A convenient bookcase should 
be provided, with file boxes for farmers' bulletins, circulars 




Typewriter desk for the ofBce. 

and clippings. These should all be classified for conveni- 
ent use under the leading farm subjects and enterprises, 
such as soils and fertilizers, corn, dairy, farm mechanics, 
kitchen, housekeeping, forage, etc. A series of well 
selected books on farm and home subjects should be avail- 
able for the use of every farmer. He is quite as much in 
need of his professional library as are the lawyers, teach- 
ers and doctors. 



THE FARAriNG BUSINESS 57 

Farm Office Suggestions 

1. Keep office neat, clean and conveniently organized. 

2. Do not allow office desk to be littered with un- 
necessary material, newspapers, etc. 

3. Alake carbon copies of all important business letters, 
fde them in letter files, arranged alphabetically. 

4. Answer all correspondence of a business character 
promptly. 

5. Use a memorandum pad or desk tickler on which 
all engagements, promises and reminders are recorded. Do 
not trust but train your memory. 

6. Your office is your school and class room in which 
you give form and system to your experience and educa- 
tion — through it you are getting a universal business educa- 
tion. 

7. IMake your office help you solve the problems of 
farm and home economy and furnish motives for thrift 
and education for all members of your household. 

8. Do not allow your business office to rob wife, chil- 
dren and friends of their just claim upon your time and 
energy — evenings, Sundays and holidays belong chiefly to 
them, not to the business of office. 



58 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER lY 
CORN CULTURE 

CORN is king of farm crops. The value of the corn 
is almost equal to that of cotton, wheat and oats 
combined, and totals more than a billion dollars annually. 
We feed our stock upon corn, eat it for our own food and 
use it in many other ways. The welfare and prosperity of 
millions of people are dependent on securing a good crop 
of corn. 

Three-fourths of the corn crop of the world is grown in 
the United States. Each year we produce more than 
2,500,000,000 bushels and not infrequently as much as 
3,000,000,000 bushels. Should we load this enormous crop 
into wagons, fifty bushels to the load, and allow twenty 
feet for each wagon and team, the line would reach from 
eight to nine times around the earth at the equator. 

The corn region. — The greater corn belt of the United 
States consists of Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kan- 
sas, Indiana and Ohio. These seven states have up to the 
present raised about half of the world's crop of corn. The 
average yield in these states is about forty bushels to the 
acre, while the average for the entire country is less than 
thirty bushels to the acre. 

During the last ten years the cultivation of corn as a 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 59 

staple farm crop has made rapid advance in all the south- 
ern states. The subtropical climate, the favorable soil, the 
long seasons for maturing, and the copious rainfall make 
the southern states admirably adapted to the growing of 
corn. 

The Corn Plant 

Corn belongs to the grass family ; that is, it is a mem- 
ber of the. same group of plants as timothy, wheat, rye or 
blue-grass. It differs from most of the grasses in that it 
produces the head or fruit, which we call the ear, on a 
short side branch. 

How the roots grow. — The roots of the corn plant 
are tough and fibrous. They branch freely and do not pos- 
sess a central tap root. By earing time the roots of a vig- 
orous plant may extend down several feet and spread out so 
that they meet the roots from other hills. The ground of 
the corn-field may thus be completely filled up with roots. 
In dry seasons the roots strike deeper than in wet, through 
seeking for the moisture. The rooting is also deeper in 
black porous soil than in soil that has a hard clay sub- 
soil underneath. 

Nature has shown her wonderful adaptability in pro- 
viding that some of the roots shall start from several inches 
above the top of the ground. These are called brace roots. 
They serve the same purpose as the guy ropes of a tent pole, 
and hold the stalk steady in the winds. If these are broken 
off by close plowing, or destroyed by worms, the corn is 
easily blown down. 



60 AGRICULTURE AND 

The stem. — The corn stem or stalk varies in length 
from two to three feet up to as much as fifteen 
feet. The length of the stalk depends upon the particular 
variety of corn, differences in the season, and the quality 
of soil. Contrary to the belief of many farmers, a very tall 
stalk is not desirable. An extreme growth of stalk uses 
up the nourishment from the soil and also exposes the plant 
to more danger from high winds and storms. 

The leaves are important in the growth of the plant, 
since in them the plant food is worked over and assimilated, 
and through them the respiration, or breathing, of the plant 
is done. The leaves are large, and hence have to stand 
much tugging in the wind. They are stronger because of 
their sheath-like form of attachment. Large vigorous 
leaves indicate a healthy plant. In very dry weather, the 
leaves curl up from the edges. This is a useful habit, 
since the leaf when thus rolled up does not lose so much 
moisture as when fully open. 

Tassel and silk. — The tassel and silk are important 
parts of the corn plant. The tassel represents the male 
part and the silk the female part of the flower. The work 
of the tassel is to produce pollen. This sifts off in fine 
grains just as the corn is silking. A particle of pollen 
lodges on the tip of a silk, and a growth is carried through 
the center of the tiny thread to its root, where the kernel 
forms. The pollen in this way fertilizes the silks, one silk 
for each kernel of corn. If for any reason no fertilization 
occurs, no kernels will be formed. 

The pollen grains are very light, and may be carried by 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 61 

the wind for many rods, thus fertiHzing the silks of other 
corn plants than their own. This is called cross-fertilization. 
The reason different varieties of corn planted in near-by 
fields mix is because the pollen is carried from one field to 
the other. 

Importance of a Good Stand 

In order to raise a full yield of corn we must first of all 
have a good stand. Corn is usually planted in rows about 
three and a half feet apart each way. On good corn land, 
especially in the corn belt or central states, three stalks seem 
to make the best hill. It is plain that if the hills have but 
one or two stalks each, or if whole hills are frequently 
missing, there can not be a full crop, and loss is sure to 
result. 

Loss from poor stand. — For example, it was esti- 
mated by experts that the farmers of Indiana in a recent 
season averaged 70 per cent, of a perfect stand of corn; 
and that approximately a perfect stand could have been 
had through three additional expedients — the proper selec- 
tion of seed corn, the testing of the seed and better prepara- 
tion of the soil for planting. The farmers of Indiana 
planted 5,000,000 acres of corn for that season's crop. But 
a 70 per cent, stand means that only 3,500,000 acres 
actually grew corn. Thus the farmers of one state were 
plowing, planting, cultivating and paying interest or rental 
on 1,500,000 acres of land for which they received no 
return, simply because they had no crop growing on it. 
The annual loss to the farmers of Indiana from this one 
source amounts to nearly 60,000,000 bushels of corn, or 



62 AGRICULTURE AND 

enough when sold to support three pubHc school systems as 
expensive as their own, or to build several thousand miles 
of excellent highways. And besides this, the world, already 
paying far too high a price for food products, is deprived 
of a vast amount of food to which it has a right. 

Similar illustrations may be found in any agricultural 
state. The average corn yield in Kentucky for a recent 
year was twenty-nine bushels to the acre. But that same 
year the champion club boy of Kentucky produced one hun- 
dred and forty-eight bushels on his acre. Experts tell us 
that Iowa can easily raise on an average of seventy-five 
bushels to the acre; all that is needed are better methods 
of farming. But Iowa actually produces a little less than 
forty bushels. This means that Iowa farmers are annually 
paying some 200,000,000 bushels of corn as the price for 
poor stand and inferior methods of cultivation. 

Loss from barren stalks. — There are several causes 
for barren stalks. Barrenness may be produced by weak 
seed, insect enemies and diseases, unfavorable soil or cli- 
matic conditions and too thick planting. It is probable that 
weak seed more than anything else is responsible for bar- 
renness. Since the ear is the first part of the plant to 
suffer, however, any cause that checks growth will tend to 
produce barren stalks. 

Loss from suckers. — Suckers are another class of un- 
profitable stalks. Corn sends out but one stalk from each 
kernel of seed ; but occasionally one or more branches, 
called suckers, spring from the joints near the ground. 
Suckers have no independent root system, and so draw all 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 63 

their nourishment from the parent plant. They seldom 
produce ears, and are, therefore, clear waste, adding nothing 
themselves to the yield, while robbing the main stalk. Suck- 
ers are usually most plentiful in thin planting, especially if 
the soil be rich. There are also certain strains of corn that 
produce more suckers than others. Seed from sucker-bear- 
ing plants, or from strains addicted to sucker-bearing should 
not be planted. 

It is an interesting and profitable experiment for any 
farmer to go out into his corn-field and count the stand and 
the barren stalks on a representative section of the field, 
and then compute the percentage of loss from these sources. 
It is probable that on average years a ninety-five per cent, 
bearing stand can be obtained if care is used. 

Corn Enemies 

Plants, like animals, are subject to certain diseases. 
Corn is usually a healthy plant, and not afifected by as 
many diseases as some of the other crops. The most seri- 
ous enemies of corn are various insects, such as the corn- 
root worm, the corn-root aphis or louse, the cutworm, the 
ear worm ; and such animals as gophers, squirrels and birds. 

The corn-root worm. — This pest is responsible, over 
a large area of the country, for greater loss to the corn crop 
than any other cause except poor seed, and often probably 
inflicts more damage than all other insects put together. 
It has been estimated that its damage in the corn belt alone 
exceeds 200,000,000 bushels annually. Because the root 
worm is very small and does its work underground, it is 



64 AnRTCUr.TURK AND 

seldom seen, and probably could not be identified by many 
farmers to wboni it lias caused ibousands of dollars of 
loss. It is present in some degree in almost every corn- 
field. 

At full size the root worm is about one-third inch in 
length, and as large around as a pin. It is whitish in color, 
with its head and the first segment of its body brown. The 
root worm hatches in June or early July, and reaches its 
full growth by the first of August. Soon after this it goes 
into the pupa state, and in a few days comes out a small 
green beetle. This beetle lays the eggs, which remain in 
the ground over winter and hatch the next generation of 
root worms the following spring. 

As soon as the young worms are hatched they enter 
the roots of the growing corn, burrowing back and forth 
just under the outside covering. Half a dozen worms are 
sometimes found in the one root, and as many as two hun- 
dred in a single hill. The worm destroys the tender part of 
the root, which turns brown and rots ofif, leaving only the 
stubs of roots. As a result, the stalk of corn is deprived of 
its means of securing moisture and nourishment. It seems 
to stand still instead of making a vigorous growth, and 
fares badly during the dry weather of July and August. 
It is easily blown over, especially after a rain when the 
ground is soft. The yield is greatly reduced, and the ears 
are light and chaflfy ; many stalks are barren. The growth 
of the plant is retarded, and the crop is late in maturing. 

There is no way of stopping these pests once they begin 
on a field of corn. But the remedy is possible for the next 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



65 




66 AGRICULTURE AND 

year — whenever practical plant the field to some other crop. 
For this will leave the young worms with no food, and 
they will all die. The field can then be planted to corn 
again, and should be free from root worms for at least 
the first year. Usually corn should not be raised for 
more than two years in succession on the same field. Es- 
pecially if the corn goes down in spots in August, and if 
the roots show the working of these worms, corn should 
not follow corn the next season. If proper rotation of crops 
is practised, there will be little or no loss from the root 
worm. 

The corn-root aphis or louse. — Second to the root 
worm, the worst enemy of corn is the corn-root aphis. This 
is a small louse, no larger than the head of a pin, and of a 
bluish-green color. These lice are found in groups on the 
roots of corn, from which they suck the juices intended for 
the growth of the plant. 

The corn-root aphis is always found accompanied by 
ants. Indeed, it is the ants which carry the lice to the 
corn roots, or to the roots of certain weeds after the corn 
roots have become hard. The ants take this care of the 
aphis because it gives out a sweet substance called "honey 
dew," upon which the ants feed. The presence of many 
ants in the corn-field, especially ant-holes in the hill, is 
a sign of root aphis. 

The worst damage by the aphis is done while the corn 
is very young. The lice sometimes destroy the roots even 
before the plant comes up. The effect of their work on the 
corn roots causes the plant to turn yellow and take on a 



THE FARMING BUSINESS G? 

sickly appearance. If they are very severe in their attack, 
the tips of the leaves become purplish, and the stems reddish 
in color. The yield of the crop is greatly reduced, and its 
ripening delayed. 

Rotation of crops is one of the surest remedies against 
this pest. Harrozving the field before the corn comes up, or 
while it is small, interferes with the work of the ants, and 
hence checks the ravages of the aphis. Keeping the fields 
clean of weeds is also necessary, since the lice thrive on 
the roots of such plants as smart weed and foxtail. 

Cutworms. — Cutworms do little damage except on sod 
land which has been in meadow or pasture for a number 
of years. They are a grayish-brown color, and grow to an 
inch or more in length. Cutworms work at night, cutting 
the young stalk of corn off at the surface of the ground. 

One remedy for cutv/orms is the fall plowing of sod, 
thus exposing the insects to the freezing of winter. This 
will greatly reduce their number. A shorter rotation of 
crops, leaving the field in sod but one or two years, will also 
tend to destroy the cutworms. 

Wireworms. — Wireworms also make their home in 
sod, and hence are worst in newly broken ground. They 
are the larvae of the click -beetle, whose eggs are laid in 
meadows and pastures in the fall. They hatch out as small 
reddish-brown worms in the early spring. The worms at- 
tack the sprouting kernel, and also bore holes through the 
young plant. Fall plowing and rotation of crops are the 
best remedies against the wireworm. 

The ear worm. — The worm is usually found working 



68 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Corn ear injured by corn motb diuini,' stornse. 
youth's greatest euemies to stored corn. 



One of the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 69 

in the tips of corn ears. It attacks not only corn, but 
cotton and many other plants. 

The corn-ear worm lives through the winter in the 
pupa stage, and comes out in the spring as a moth. There 
are several broods each season, but only the last does any 
great damage to the corn. The harm done by the ear 
worm is not great, except to sweet corn intended for can- 
ning. There is no certain remedy known, though fall plow- 
ing is thought to reduce its number. 

Smut. — ^The most common disease affecting corn is 
smut. The smut masses seen on growing corn are pro- 
duced by a small parasitic plant which lives on the juices 
of the corn plant. Smut spores, corresponding to seeds, 
live over winter in the soil, or may be distributed in manure 
spread on the field, or may even be blown considerable 
distances from other fields. 

The slimy black masses of smut are found on the 
stalk, leaves, tassel or ear. Since smut must live ofi 
the strength of its host, it is evident that the corn plant 
is weakened and the yield reduced by the presence of this 
disease. There is no effective remedy for corn smut, though 
the burning of smut balls, keeping it from the manure used 
on the field and the rotation of crops, all tend to control it. 

Saving the Seed 

The first care if we would secure a good stand of corn 
is the seed. We must have seed that will grow and show 
strong vitality. Most of the poor stands, except those due 
to bad weather or poorly j^repared seed beds, come from 



70 



AGRICULTURE AND 



seed that either fails to germinate, or else throws out plants 
so weak that they are unable to live through the cold 
damp weather of early spring. 

Loss from poor seed. — The loss from the planting of 




A sample of corn sliowing good tip euds. 



poor seed is enormous. There are more than one hundred 
million acres of corn planted every year in the United 
States. This requires some sixteen million bushels of seed. 
But of these sixteen million bushels, it has been estimated 
by government experts that three million bushels fail to 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 71 

grow or produce barren stalks. Think of planting three 
million bushels of worthless seed corn each year! 

Let us see what this great waste means. The average 
yield of corn to the acre in the United States is slightly 
under thirty bushels, or only one small ear to the hill. 
For, counting 3,556 hills to the acre, one ten-ounce ear 
to the hill would yield almost thirty-two bushels to the 
acre; and an ear weighing only ten ounces is little more 
than a nubbin. Our farmers are therefore averaging but 
one small ear to the hill in all their corn-fields. If they 
should increase the stand and improve the corn so that 
from each hill they get two medium-sized ears, each weigh- 
ing twelve and one-half ounces, the yield will be eighty 
bushels to the acre instead of thirty bushels. Will it not 
pay to select good seed ? 

Time for saving seed. — There is no more important 
work on the farm than the selection and care of seed 
corn for the next crop. Freezing before it is fully dry 
almost always injures the seed so that it either will fail 
to sprout, or else will produce a weak plant. Seed corn 
should therefore be gathered as early in the fall as it is 
well ripened. The time for saving seed in the "corn belt" 
is from September twentieth to October tenth. 

How to gather seed corn. — Securing good seed re- 
quires that seed corn shall be gathered from the field be- 
fore the general crop is harvested. The proper way to 
select seed corn is to pass through the best parts of the 
field, row by row, with a sack slung over the shoulder, 
examining each promising-looking ear from a good stalk and 



72 AGRICULTURE AND 

full hill, and taking the ear If it proves acceptable. This 
looks like a good deal of work, but when it is remembered 
that twelve to fifteen ears will plant an acre, and that the 
difference between a yield of thirty bushels or of sixty 
bushels to the acre may result from having good seed, it 
is well worth the time. From three to five bushels a day 
may be selected in this way — enough to plant from twenty- 
five to forty acres of next season's crop. 

The right kind of seed hill. — In selecting ears for 
seed it is important to take into account all the surround- 
ings of the plant. It is plain that ears grown on stalks 
which stand but one in a hill, or next to missing hills, have 
a better chance to grow large than those from full hills. 
A large ear grown under such favorable conditions might 
not produce so well as somewhat smaller ears grown un- 
der less favorable conditions. Wq want to be sure that 
the ear is good size because of something in the nature of 
the ear itself, rather than from what has happened to it 
while growing. Mature good ears from hills having three 
stalks are desirable, for this condition promises a good yield. 
The stalk should be sturdy, not too tall, and have plenty 
of broad full leaves. 

Caring for the seed. — Caring for the seed after it is 
picked is as important as its selection. The great thing in 
caring for seed corn just picked from the field is to give 
it a chance to dry gradually but thoroughly. To do this, it 
must be where it can get plenty of circulating air. The ears 
should not touch one another, for then they will not dry 
evenly. Seed corn should therefore never be stacked in 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



7Z 





Diyiug seed corn. 



74 AGRICULTURE AND 

piles or thrown into a crib after it is gathered, but should be 
hung up in some open place sheltered from the direct sun, 
if the weather is still hot, and from all rain or other forms 
of moisture. 

One of the simplest and best ways to hang seed corn' 
is by stringing it. By this method each string con- 
tains a dozen or fourteen ears- — enough to plant an acre. To 
hang corn in this way, cut a string of binding twine twelve 
feet long, and tie the ends together, thus forming a loop. 
One person should operate the string, and another handle 
the ears. Place the first ear in the strings, and pass one 
end of the loop through the other end, tightening down to 
the ear. Place the next ear in the same way, and keep on 
until the string has all been taken up. Hang the stringer 
of ears up in a uniformly dry place and it will need no 
more attention until time comes for testing the seed. This 
plan should be followed after each day's picking, not even 
allowing the corn to lie over night before being hung to dry. 

Another plan of drying out seed corn is to lay the ears 
side by side on a rack, made especially as a seed dryer. It 
should permit a free circulation of air, and should be placed 
where mice and rats can not reach the corn. Where this 
plan is followed, the shelves should be made of slats, and 
not of solid boards, so as to allow the air to get to all 
parts of the ear. 

Hanging the ears by tying a part of the husk together 
works well, but takes more time, and also takes up more 
room than to use the twine loop for hanging ears in 
one string. Still another method is to drive ten-penny 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 73 

finishing nails four inches apart in a post, sticking the butt 
of the ear on the nail. 

Types of Corn 

There are altogether seven different types of corn. 
These are: (1) pod corn, (2) soft corn, (3) sweet corn, (4) 
pop-corn, (5) Kafir corn, (6) flint corn, and (7) dent 
corn. 

Pod corn. — Most of those who will read this book 
have never seen pod corn grown. It has a thin husk 
around each separate kernel. This type of corn is of interest 
chiefly because it is thought to be the oldest type, from 
which all other types have developed. The chaff or scale 
at the base of the kernels of our common varieties is prob- 
ably a remnant of the kernel husk of the old pod corn. 
Pod corn will grow in almost any temperate region. 

Soft corn. — Soft corn, like pod corn, is not grown as a 
staple crop in the United States. This is the Mondamin 
of the American Indians, and was favored by them because 
it was very easily ground. Its softness is caused by the 
fact that its endosperm is all of soft white starch, wholly 
lacking the horny starch of the other types. Little of 
this type is grown except in the South. 

Sweet corn. — Sweet corn is widely grown for human 
food. It is used green as "roasting-ears," and is canned 
while green and kept in this state for almost any length of 
time. Sweet corn does not produce so large a yield as 
some other kinds, and hence is not grown for feeding stock 
It is grown throughout the entire United States. 



76 AGRICULTURE AND 

Pop-corn. — Pop-corn Is distinguished for the hardness 
of its kernel. It is just the opposite of soft corn, and has 
an endosperm nearly all of hard horny starch. When the 
kernels are heated and the moisture in them expands, an 
explosion occurs which we call popping. Pop-corn can be 
raised in all parts of the corn region. 

Kafir corn. — Botanically Kafir is not really a member 
of the corn family, but belongs to the sorghums. For 
agricultural purposes, however, Kafir may be considered 
a type of corn. Its medium-sized seeds grow in a cylin- 
drical or oblong head instead of on an ear. Kafir is grown 
in the semi-arid regions of the Southwest. It is a good 
substitute for corn in the ration of all farm animals. 

Flint corn. — Flint corn is the prevailing type yet 
raised in New England and in New York. It is to be 
recognized by the long slender ears, and by the hard flinty 
kernel, which contains a large amount of horny starch. 
Flint corn does not require so long a growing season as 
dent corn, and hence is preferred in some northern regions 
where there is danger of the crop being caught by the frost 
before it is ripe. As early varieties of dent corn are being 
developed, they are displacing flint corn in many regions. 

Dent corn. — This is the principal corn raised in the 
great corn prodvicing regions of the United States. In 
fact, it supplies the greater part of the world's corn crop. 
It Is called dent corn because the soft starch of the crown 
shrinks slightly in ripening, thus causing a depression in 
the top of the kernel. It is the type grown almost ex- 
clusively for feeding stock, and all the commercial corn 



TITE FARATTXr; BUSINESS 77, 

products, such as glucose, starch, sirup, etc., are made 
from it. Dent corn has two varieties: (1) single ear, or 
one ear to the stalk, as grown in the corn belt; and (2) 
prolific, or many ears to the stalk, as grown in the South. 

Types and varieties. — Each different type of corn may 
have many varieties or strains. As a matter of fact, how- 
ever, the types that are most grown have the largest number 
of varieties, or strains. Varieties of corn are produced in 
three different ways: (1) by selecting some exceptional 
or peculiar ear, and using it for seed, picking out for seed 
each year the ears most nearly like the original parent ear 
until the variety is established; (2) by cross breeding; and 
(3) by selecting each year for planting the best ears, — 
the earliest ears, the largest ears, the best shaped ears, or 
ears that possess whatever quality is wanted in the new 
variety. If this same quality is selected year after year, 
the variety will after a time have a tendency to "breed 
true" ; that is, all to be like the ears selected for seed. 

Selecting the best variety. — Different varieties are 
suited for different climates and for different soils. It is 
therefore important in selecting a variety of corn to know 
whether it is adapted to the conditions under which it is 
to be raised. 

Raising Seed in a Selection Bed 

The first step necessary in improving corn is to improve 
the seed. Not only must we make sure that the corn 
selected for seed will grow, but it must be as nearly up to 
standard in every way as possible. For heredity works in 



78 



AGRICULTURE AND 



plants as well as in animals. We select the best stock for 
breeding; we should do the same in choosing the seed we 
plant. Good, strong, well-formed ears will tend to produce 
corn of the same kind, while small, irregular, or weak ears 
will breed the characteristics of their kind. 





""""[Starch 

iSS^ccjf? 'Starch 

i^&rs^ISs _ i Horny 
i.isSfcif:: iGlUten 




,'Cap 



Demonsti-atious showing results of planting corn at different 
depths. Diagram of kernel of corn. 

Choosing the selection bed. — So important is the mat- 
ter of the very best corn for seed, that many farmers are 
now using what is called the selection bed for the raising of 
seed. The selection bed should be a choice plot of ground 
of from one to three acres, depending on the size of the 
farm. This plot is specially prepared, planted with the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 79 

choicest seed tested for growth and vitahty, and is given. 
the best of care. 

The selection bed should be by itself if you want pure 
seed. It may be a part of the general field, if located at 
the south or southwest side, so that the prevailing summer 
winds may carry the pollen to all parts of the plot, and 
even to the remainder of the field. This plot should never 
be placed where it will receive the pollen from some neigh- 
boring field of different variety, of mixed or poor grade 
corn. 

Care at tasseling time. — At tasseling time the selec- 
tion bed requires special attention. As already explained, 
this is because the tassel, which is the male flower of the 
corn, bears the pollen necessary to fertilize the silk, which 
is the female flower. There is one silk for each kernel. 
The silk has to be fertilised by a single grain of pollen fall- 
ing upon it. If pollen from a different variety of corn fer- 
tilizes the silks, the result is a mixed breed. If the pollen 
comes from w^eak or faulty stalks, the ears formed are 
imperfect, or the stalk may remain barren. 

In the selection bed, as in the remainder of the field, 
there will be found weak stalks, barren stalks and suckers, 
all of which may bear tassels, and hence produce pollen. 
But the pollen from these faulty stalks should not be allowed 
to fertilize the ear-bearing stalks. To prevent this, it is 
necessary to go into the selection bed when the first tassels 
begin to appear, and cut out all the faulty stalks, so that 
their pollen may do no damage. This is a very important 
matter in raising good seed, and should never be neglected. 



80 AGRICULTURE AND 

Weak parentage in corn, as in stock, should be pre- 
vented. 

Taking seed from selection bed. — The same care 
should be observed in selecting seed from the selection bed 
as from the general field. Each year the choicest and 
strongest ears should be used in planting the selection bed. 
In this way, almost any variety of corn can be improved, 
and much larger and better yields obtained. 

Home-grown seed the best. — As a rule, home-grown 
seed is best, provided it is carefully selected, and kept 
improving from year to year. It takes corn shipped in from 
another region several years to adapt itself to the new con- 
ditions so that it will do as well as in its home place. 
Corn does not "run out," as many farmers believe, but 
is run out by farmers who are careless in selecting seed. 

Testing the Seed Corn 

No seed corn should ever be planted that has not been 
tested ear by ear to see whether it will germinate and 
produce a strong growth. For, even if the seed is care- 
fully selected and cared for, there are always some ears 
that will fail to grow, or else produce plants so weak as 
to be barren or raise but worthless nubbins. 

Corn Judging with Score-Card 

What qualities, together, make a good ear of corn? We 
are now ready for a somewhat more careful study of the 
ear to answer this question. For this purpose we might 
judge a sample of ten ears by the use of the score-card. 



THE FAT^AriXG BUSINESS 81 

The score-card requires that we grade the ear on each of 
its different quaHtics, and then sum these markings all 
together for the final "standing" or value of the ear. 

This method of judging corn is much more accurate 
and scientific than estimating the value of an ear in an 
oft'hand way. It is the method used by a number of the corn 
experts. 

All ears to be judged as if for seed. — No matter for 
what purpose corn is to be used, it is always best to judge 
the ears as if they zvcre intended for seed. This is because 
the ear that is best for seed is also best for every other 
purpose. The ear which would show best in an agricultural 
exhibit, the one which would be best for yield, or feeding, 
or any other use, is the one which grades highest as a 
seed ear. 

The four qualities on which the ear is judged. — The 
score-card is arranged to judge the corn on four dififerent 
qualities, each quality, if perfect, being counted as twenty- 
five points, one hundred points therefore being a perfect 
score. 

The first great question about an ear is : Will it yield 
well ; has it a good constitution, so that it will do well even 
under unfavorable conditions? The second question is: 
Will it ripen, and not get caught by the frost and so produce 
a crop of soft corn? The third question is: Will it grozv, 
is it of good vitality, so that it will give a good stand, 
and strong plants? The fourth question is: Does it show 
improvement; or is it of clear type and corn that will breed 
true, and not show mixed breeds ? 



82 AGRICULTURE AND 

Will the ear yield? — The chief factors in the yield are 
the size of ear, depth of kernel, filling at tip and butt, and 
reasonably close set rows. The size of the ear must be 
adapted to the locality. Much larger ears can be raised 
in Missouri, for example, than in Minnesota, because of 
the diiTerence in length of season. 

Will the ear ripen? — In general, ears that have a large 
circumference are slower in ripening than slender ears. 
Long kernels also indicate late maturity, as do large, coarse, 
pithy cobs. Such characteristics are therefore not adapted 
to regions having short seasons. 

Will the ear grow? — In an ear of good vitality the 
grain is of a bright and cheerful appearance, and the germ 
and embryo of clear whitish color, somewhat shiny from 
the oil it contains. All discoloring or signs of molding 
indicate lack of vitality. 

Does the corn show improvement? — In corn that is 
improving instead of running out, the color is clear and 
free from mixture, true to the variety represented. Both 
ears and kernels should be constant in shape, and conform 
to the variety type. 

Let us study these four points a little more in detail, and 
then we shall be ready to score our samples according to 
the points of the score-card which follows; 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



83 



SCORE-CARD FOR CORN 

1. WILL IT YIELD? 25 POINTS 
That is, will it yield well; has it constitution; can we depend on it even when conditions are unfavorable? 







NUMBERS OF EARS 


I IWILL IT YIELD? 


Perf. 

Score 


1 12 {3 |4 Is |6 17 18 |9 |10 


I'siie of Ear 


6 




2|Solidity or Heavinesa 


4 




SIDepth of Kernels 


3 




4|Cheerfulnes8 


3 




SlSize of Germs 


2 




elFulIncss of Middle 


2 




TlFilling of Butta 






81Filling of Tips 






QlSpace at Cob 






lOiFurrows between Row3 






ll|Size and Cnndition of Co!i 






Total 


25 




II WILL IT RIPEN? 25 POINTS 
That IS will it mature: will it ripen every year, is it safe for the locality? Will it be of good quality? 








NUMBERS OF EARS 


1 |P"f 11)1)11111 
II JWILL IT RIPEN? IScore | I 12 | 3 14 15 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 1 in 


]|Sizc of Ear 


el 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


2| Depth of Kernels 


4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


S'Starchincsa 


1 1 1 J ) I 1 1 1 1 
3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


1 
4lSappiness 


3| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


s'chaffiness 


3| i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


6|Size of Cob 


2I 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 


IPlumpness of Tips of Ker- 
71 nels 


2I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


lAdherence of Chaff to Tip 
81 Caps Kernel 


,1 I 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 


lAdhercLce of Tip Caps tol 1 1 1 1 1 | 1 | 1 1 
91 Cob 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


1 T„., r25i 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! ! ' 



84 



AGRICULTURE AND 



III. WILL IT GROW? 25 POINTS 
That is, has it vitality; will it germinate; will it all grow and grow uniformly, giving strong vigorous plants / 









NUMBERS OF EARS 


HI WILL IT GROW? 


Perf 1 1 1 1 1 1 ) ) I I 
Score! 1 |2 \ 3 |4 |5 |6 (7 |8 |9 |lO 


I 
2 


Color, Condition of Germ. 
Embryo 


1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 
10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


Starchiness 


3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


sISappiness 


3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


4lChaffinea3 


2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


SlMculdiness of Cob 




1 Plumpness of Tips of Ker- 
61 nels 




7 
8 


Size of Germs 




Smoothness of back of 
Kernel 




SlSmoolhncsB of Germs 




lAdherence of Chaff to Tip 
101 Caps 




lAdherence of Tip Caps to 
III Cob 


I 1 1 I 1 1 1 I I I ' 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


Total 


25| II 1 1 1 1 1 1 


IV. DOES IT SHOW IMPROVEMENT? 25 POINTS 
That is. has it breeding; has it a distinct type; will it reproduce itself; 'has it several years of careful se- 
lection and improvement back of it? 








NUMBERS OF EARS 


[DOES IT SHOW IM-IPerf. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
IV 1 PROVEMENT? IScore | 1 |2 13 14 |5 16 1? 18 |9 |lO 


IPurity of Color of Grain 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
ll and Cob 1 lol 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


2|shape of Ear 1 3 | | | 1 I | | | | | 


sishape of Kernels 1 3 j | ) | | 1 I | | | 


5 


Uniformity in Size anJl 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
Shape of Ear 1 s) 1 i 1 | 1 1 | | ) 


Uniformity in Sise, Shape] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
of Kernels 1 sl | 1 | | | | | | ( 


eiCharacterofDent 1 21 | ) | | 1 | | 1 1 


IStraightnees, Ar-| 1 1 1 I 1 1 
7| rangemcnt of Rows 1 1 I 1 1 1 | I | | | I 


U5| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


1 (SUSIILABY) 




NUMBERS OF EARS 


1 ToUl Score llMlsMlslel? sIqIiO 


I Iwill it Yield? 25) 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 


II Iwill it Ripen? 25| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


III jwil! it Grow? 1 25 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


IV (Show Improvement? | 25 1 I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 


Grand ToUl | 100 | | | I I I 1 1 1 I 



TTTE FARATTXG P.USTXF.SS 



85 



Since it takes but a dozen or fifteen ears to plant an 
acre, and since an acre of average ground should yield at 
least sixty bushels, each ear of seed represents from four 
to five bushels of crop. The farmer's time can be spent 




A good ear and a poor ear of corn. 

in no more profitable way than in making sure that every 
ear of seed corn planted is sure to grow. The testing 
should be done late in the winter, or in the early spring 
before the farm work opens. 

Preparing for testing. — Testing the seed corn costs 



86 



AGRICULTURE AND 



practically nothing but a little time, care and attention. 
For, while there are several excellent seed-corn testers on 
the market, none is superior to one that can easily be made 
at home. 

The sawdust germination box may be prepared as fol- 
lows : Construct a box thirty inches square and four inches 
deep. Put some sawdust in a bag and soak it in warm 
water until it is well saturated. Fill the box half full 



HOW TO TEST TEN OR MORE ACRES 



IN A BOX 




Ask your Slate Agricultural 

College where to obtain 

proper seed 

of the sawdust, packing it well. Take a piece of good white 
cloth and rule it off in two-and-one-half-inch squares, mak- 
ing one hundred squares in all, and numbering them from 
one to one hundred. Place the cloth on the sawdust so 
that there will be a margin of at least two inches between 
the sides "of the box and the squares. Tack the cloth to the 
edges of the box. 

Now take one hundred ears of corn to be tested and 
lay them out in a row on a table or planks. Drive a nail into 
the table every tenth ear, separating the entire lot into 
ten groups of ten ears each. Number the ears from one to 
one hundred to correspond with the squares in the tester. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 87 

This may be done by numbering the phices on the edge of 
the table if care is taken not to change the places of the ears. 

Making the test. — Remove one kernel from near the 
butt, one from near the middle, and one from near the tip 
of the ear ; turn the ear over and remove three kernels from 
corresponding positions on the other side of the ear. These 
six kernels are to be placed, germ side up and tips all toward 
one side of the box, in the squares over the sawdust, 
those from ear No. 1 in square No. 1, and so on, until 
six kernels have been taken from each of the one hundred 
cars and placed in the tester. 

After the kernels are all in position, thus filling the 
one hundred squares, lay a piece of cloth over them, taking 
care not to disturb their positions. Sprinkle this cloth well 
with warm water. Now la}' over this another cloth about 
twice the size of the box. Fill in on top about two inches 
of damp sawdust, packing it down very firmly. Then fold 
the edges of the cloth over the sawdust, covering it so that 
it will not dry out. 

The germination box is now ready to set away for the 
kernels to sprout. The box should be kept in a fairly 
warm place, and must not be allowed to freeze. The 
kernels should be allowed from six to eight days for 
sprouting, depending on the temperature. It is not enough 
that the germination has merely started ; it must be al- 
lowed to go on for some days to show whether the new 
plant has good vitality. 

The number of germination boxes required will depend 
on the amount of seed to be tested. Several can be used 



88 AGRICULTURE AND 

at the same time, stacking one on top of another as they 
are filled. The ears must, of course, remain in their original 
positions on the tables until the results of the test are 
determined. 

Reading the test. — At the end of the germination 
period the cover must be removed without disturbing the 
kernels. This can be done by carefully rolling up the 
top pad of sawdust in its cloth. The sprouts will be 
some two inches long, and may in some cases have grown 
through the first cloth covering. 

It is easy now to tell which are the good and which 
are the bad seed ears. An ear should be rejected if even 
one of the six kernels failed to sprout. For a loss of one 
out of six means sixteen and two-thirds per cent, of the 
crop gone if all ears were of this kind. 

Ears whose six kernels may all sprout, but which start 
weakly, should also be thrown out. For it is these weak 
plants that later turn out to be barren, or prove an easy 
prey to dry weather or some insect enemy. If only those 
ears are planted whose six kernels all produce strong vigor- 
ous sprouts in the germination box, the greatest obstacle 
in the way of a perfect stand will have been removed. 

The "rag-doU" tester. — A very simple and effective 
tester is made of a strip of cloth and is called the "rag 
doll." To make this form of tester, use nine-inch strips 
of muslin five feet long. Draw a pencil line lengthwise 
down the middle of the strip, and draw cross lines every 
three inches, leaving about fifteen inches at each end of 
the strip with no lines. Number the spaces. Wet the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



89 



cloth thoroughly, and place the kernels in the spaces as in 
the sawdust tester. Roll the strip up from one end, and 
tie a string- around the roll. Now stand the roll, with 
the tips of the kernels down, in a bucket of tepid water 
for several hours. Place the roll in a box or under an 
inverted bucket so that thei moisture will not dry out. 
Of course as many of these rolls may be used as are re- 
quired for the amount of corn to be tested. 

De«d. 2. Wtali, Rootlets only. 3. Weak. Sprout only. 4. Strong. Both Sprout »nd RootktK 
Don't plant any seed which will not p.rminate good and itrong 




THROW OUT EARS NUMBERS I, 2. 4. 7. 10 .nj 11 AS WEAK OR DEAD 




Rag-doll tester. 

Commercial testers. — Several forms of commercial 
testers are now available, and most of them are fairly 
satisfactory. There is little need, however, for buying 
testers when they can be so easily made at home, and 
when the home-made testers are so simple and effective. 

Preparing Seed Corn for the Planter 

After testing the seed, the next step is to grade it for 

the planter. This means to divide the seed corn into lots 

according to the size of the kernels. It is impossible to 

secure a regular drop with the planter unless the kernels 



90 AGRICULTURE AND 

are of fairly uniform size. And no matter how good the 
seed, if one hill receives two kernels and the next four 
or five, the stand will be irregular and the crop reduced. 

Grading seed corn. — ^The grading of seed corn can be 
done in the winter when general farm work is slack. It 
may well follow immediately after the testing, or even be 
carried on in connection with it. 

The first step in grading is to shell off the butts and 
tips by hand. The end kernels are always more or less 
irregular, and diflfer in size from the remainder of the ear. 
They should never be planted. 

The ears are then to be shelled, one at a time, and the 
kernels inspected to determine whether they are large or 
small; if the variation is great, it will be well to have also 
a medium grade. As each ear is shelled, the seed is put 
into its proper grade; when the shelling is completed, the 
supply of seed will therefore be in either two or three lots, 
based on the size of the kernels. All ears with exceptionally 
large or exceptionally small kernels should be rejected, as 
they will fit neither grade. 

Hand picking the seed. — But even after the most care- 
ful grading by ears, there will still be a surprisingly large 
number of irregular, broken, diseased, or imperfect kernels. 
To remove these, the corn should be spread out on a 
table, a, few handfuls at a time, and all the imperfect 
kernels thrown out. Running the seed through a "sorter" 
saves time in the hand picking. The seed-corn sorter con- 
sists of a sieve with large oblong meshes. 

Caring for the shelled seed. — After the seed has been 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 91 

tested and graded it must be given good care to prevent 
it from becoming damp and molding, or getting too dry 
as from artificial heat. It should be placed in sacks hold- 
ing not more than half a bushel each, and hung in a protected 
place, such as an attic. The sacks should be labeled to 
show the grade that each contains. 

Testing the planter. — Before planting time, the 
planter should be carefully tested for each grade of seed, 
and the right size of plates determined. This is done by 
placing a quantity of each grade of seed in the planter 
boxes in succession, throwing the drop by hand, and keep- 
ing accurate count of the number of kernels dropped each 
time for from twenty-five to one hundred hills. 

In well graded seed it should be possible to secure a 
drop of three kernels more than seventy-five per cent, of 
the time. Whether whatever variation there is should be 
chiefly in the direction of two, or of four, kernels will 
depend on the richness of the soil. If the seed has been 
carefully tested, the effort should be to plant three kernels 
to the hill in just as many cases as possible. 

The Seed Bed and Planting 

The roots of growing corn require, besides the nutrients 
of the soil, heat, air and moisture. Let any of these fall 
short, and the crop is injured. Loose soil absorbs both 
moisture and air better than hard soil. Loose soil also 
holds its moisture better than hard soil, since it does not 
favor such rapid evaporation. And, since evaporation is 
always accompanied by a loss of heat, hard soil loses heat 



92 AGRICULTURE AND 

more rapidly at night or during cold spells. The supply 
of heat, air and moisture therefore depends on having the 
soil loose and finely pulverized. 

How corn roots grov\^. — Corn roots grow by pushing 
the root tip out through the soil, drawing food from the 
tiny particles of earth, and drinking the film of water that 
surrounds each particle of soil. If the ground is hard or 
soggy, the root tips can not easily push through it, nor 
can they get enough air. If it is coarse and full of clods, 
the roots can not reach across the open place between the 
clods. In soil of this character roots also suffer from lack 
of moisture, for they must be packed about by fine particles 
in order to drink in the water. Even if the soil be so 
wet as to have water standing around the roots, they can not 
use water in this form. Indeed, water standing around 
the roots will injure them by keeping them too cold, and 
by shutting the air from them. Not until water is absorbed 
by millions of minute particles of fine soil is it ready for 
plant roots to drink. 

Preparing the seed bed. — Ground is plowed in order 
to loosen it. Fall plowing is usually best for corn. Fall 
plowed ground presents a rough surface which holds the 
snow better, and it also takes in and retains a larger supply 
of moisture. Fall plowing also has plenty of time to settle, 
so that it is in better condition for the crop than spring 
plowing, and allows earlier planting. Spring plowed 
ground, not having much time to settle, dries out more 
easily than ground plowed in the fall. Especially should 
sod land be plowed in the fall, so that the sod may have 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 93 

a chance to rot and settle down on the subsoil. There 
is also less danger from cutworms in fall plowed, sod land. 
Stubble ground should usually be plowed early, and sod 
late in the fall. 

Ground should not be plowed while it is wet, for most 
soils, if turned while wet, have a tendency to bake and 
form into clods that are hard to pulverize. Fall plowed 
ground should not be harrowed until spring, but should be 
disked or harrowed as soon as oat seeding is done. This 
will kill young weeds, and save the moisture from drying 
out. Spring plowing should usually be harrowed within 
a few hours after it is turned, for it is then much more 
easily pulverized than after it has dried. In very fine 
and mellow soil this may not be necessary, but many 
farmers harrow what they have plowed at the close of 
each half -day. 

Spring plowing should be disked and harrowed enough 
to press the loosened soil down on the furrow bottom, so 
that it will make good connection with the subsoil. This 
will do much to prevent drying out. In fact, it is impos- 
sible to work spring plowing too much in this way. Much 
harrowing packs the soil thoroughly, makes a loose bed for 
the seed, and provides a fine mulch to prevent loss of 
moisture through evaporation. Thorough disking or har- 
rowing of fajl plowing is necessary to loosen the soil and 
prepare the bed for the seed. 

Killing the weeds. — It is well to harrow just before 
planting, as this kills the sprouting weeds, and allows the 
corn to get started ahead of them. By far the easiest time 



94 AGRICULTURE AND 

to kill weeds is when they are just starting, and a few 
harrowings early in the season will save much trouble with 
weeds later on. From two to four harrowings, or their 
equivalent in disking, will usually pay on average fields. 

Time for planting. — Corn should be planted as early 
in the spring as the ground can be made ready and the 
soil is warm enough. The average date of planting varies 
from the eleventh of March in Florida to the twenty-sixth of 
May in Maine. The first two weeks of May are the corn- 
planting time in the states of the great middle region of 
the United States. The average air temperature at which 
corn is planted is about fifty-five degrees. The Indians had 
a rule that corn should be planted when the leaves of the 
maple were as large as squirrels' ears. 

Depth of planting. — A mistake is often made In plant- 
ing corn too deep. Some say that by planting deep they 
give the roots a deep setting. This, however, is not the 
case. For, no matter how deep the seed is planted, the 
roots adapt themselves to conditions. If the planting is 
too deep, the permanent roots finally start out nearer the 
surface, and time has been lost and energy wasted in com- 
pelling the plant to readjust itself to unnatural conditions. 

Corn should usually not be planted more than one and 
a half inches deep, and frequently not more than an inch. 
Especially in cold weather or in wet soils, should the plant- 
ing be shallow. Careful experiments have been made by 
the agricultural colleges of many states as to the best depth 
for planting corn, and they have found that almost uni- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 95 

versally the shallow planting is best. The only exception 
is for a very dry soil, or a dry season. 

Cultivating the Corn 

Why corn needs to be cultivated. — Corn is to be cul- 
tivated after planting for three main purposes: (1) to kill 
the weeds, (2) to admit air to the roots, and (3) to pre- 
serve the moisture of the soil. 

From the time germination begins the growth of the 
plant must be unchecked if a full crop is to be secured. 
When the corn has become yellow and spindhng from being 
choked by weeds, or from the baking of uncultivated soil 
around it, it is permanently injured and will never fully 
recover. Only the rich green color and sturdy stock of the 
rapidly growing plant give promise of a full yield. 

When to begin cultivation. — Cultivation should begin 
early. Under average conditions, two harrowings should 
be given before the corn comes up. This will keep the soil 
from baking, and keep the weeds down until the plants are 
large enough to cultivate. The time to kill weeds is just as 
they are starting. Let them once get well rooted, and they 
are hard to keep down. The spring-tooth weeder is some- 
times used instead of the harrow for early cultivation. It is 
valuable where there are many stones or ruts in the field. 

The shovel or disk cultivator should be started as soon 
as the corn is well up, so that the rows can be easily fol- 
lowed. Even if the weeds do not seem to be starting, they 
are surely taking root. Cultivation will also break up the 



96 



AGRICULTURE AND 



crusted soil, and admit air to the growing roots. And this 
must be done or their growth will be checked. 

Methods of cultivation. — Four or five cultivations are 
usually enough after the corn comes up, though this must 
depend on the character of the soil, the weeds and the 
amount of moisture. The present tendency is toward shal- 
low cultivation, though this also must depend on whether 




Shallow cultivating of corn with riding cultivator conserves 
moisture for dry season. 

the soil seems to pack heavily and become hard under- 
neath. If it does, the first should be of some depth. The 
important thing is not to break or injure the growing roots. 
For a broken root always means loss of vita^lity and food 
to the plant. 

From thirty or sixty days after planting, the roots have 
often spread so far that they meet between the rows, thus 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 97 

occupying all the ground. Especially is this true if the 
season has up to this time been rather wet. For in wet 
and loose soils the roots spread out near the surface, while 
in dry soil they spread less and run deeper into the ground. 
It is evident that deep cultivation after the roots are 
well spread is injurious. The old method of setting the 
shovels deep and "hilling up" the corn the last time through 
•is no longer followed in scientific farming. The cultiva- 
tions should be shallow. Cultivation may continue with 
advantage up to the time the corn is tasseling if care is 
taken not to break the roots. In dry seasons this late cul- 
tivation is a very great advantage, because it keeps a loose 
soil mulch, which does much to prevent evaporation of the 
sub-surface moisture. 

Harvesting and Storing the Com 

Corn is harvested in three principal ways: (1) it is 
husked from the standing stalks and the ears stored in 
cribs; (2) it is cut while partially green and either shocked 
in the field or stored in a silo; and (3) stock, especially 
hogs, are turned into the field to do the harvesting for 
themselves. 

Field husking. — By far the greater part of the corn 
produced, especially in the great corn belt, is husked in 
the field from the standing stalks. This is the method 
used when corn is raised for the grain, and the fodder, or 
stover, is a secondary consideration. 

Field husking is the cheapest and quickest way of secur- 
ing the grain. In good corn, from sixty to more than 



98 AGRICULTURE AND 

one hundred bushels a day can be gathered by one man 
widi a team, at a cost of from three to four cents a bushel. 
Machines for husking from the standing stalks are also 
in use on many large farms. Corn can be picked by a 
husking machine at the rate of from seven to eight acres 
a day, and, where the acreage is large, at a cost per bushel 
slightly less than for hand picking. No machine yet in- 
vented does the husking as satisfactorily as by hand. The 
machine misses some ears, breaks others, shells off more or 
less corn, and pulls up or breaks many stalks. 

One advantage of field husking is that the harvesting 
can be delayed until the fall rush with other crops is over. 
The ears should be well cured before being cribbed, or 
there is danger of molding. This is especially true if 
the fall and winter should happen to be warm and moist. 

Corn should be stored in well protected cribs. The 
use of rail or other forms of uncovered cribs is a source 
of great loss. The grain may seem to keep well during 
the winter in the open crib, but when shelled and sold to 
the elevators in the spring it often heats and spoils. This 
tends to reduce the price of corn, and has caused a preju- 
dice in European countries against American corn as a 
food. No rain or snow should reach the corn after it is 
cribbed, for it is sure to injure the quality of the grain. 

Harvesting by cutting. — In average corn the ear sup- 
plies about sixty-four per cent, of the food value and the 
plant thirty-six per cent. Thus the stover in a field is 
worth for feeding purposes more than half as much as 
the grain. If the corn is cut just as it is becom- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 99 

ing well glazed the stover is worth from five to ten dollars 
a ton. 

The time for cutting corn depends on the use to which 
it is to be put. If the corn is grown chiefly for the grain, 
it should not be cut until the kernels are well dented and 
the husks partially dry. The stover will still make good 
feed if it is properly cared for. After a heavy frost, or 
after most of the leaves have become brown, the stover 
will not pay for the expense of cutting and feeding. Cut- 
ting while the corn is in the roasting-ear stage makes a 
more palatable stover, but the feeding value of the crop 
is considerably less than if cut in the glazing stage. 

The corn binder. — The corn binder is widely used in 
northern states. It works successfully in corn from five to 
nine feet high. In regions where the stalks grow from ten 
to twelve feet in height, the binder does not meet with 
favor, since it is not yet built to handle corn of this size. 

On account of the expense of owning and operating a 
corn binder, it is doubtful whether it pays to purchase one 
unless at least twenty acres per season are to be cut. From 
seven to eight acres a day can be harvested with the corn 
binder, at a cost of about one dollar and a half an acre 
for cutting and shocking. 

The corn shocker. — The corn shocker cuts the corn 
and forms it into a shock carried on the machine. When 
the shock is completed it is tied by hand, and lifted from 
the machine by a crane and set on the ground. From four 
to five acres per day can be harvested with a shocker at a 
cost of about a dollar and ten cents an acre. 



100 AGRICULTURE AND 

Shocking the corn. — No matter how the corn is cut, 
it should be shocked so that it will stand erect and keep 
the fodder dry. Fallen and twisted shocks result in the 
loss of millions of dollars' worth of stover, and not a small 
amount of grain as well. Shocks should be tied as soon as 
they are made, and then tightened in a week or ten days. 
Binding twine makes a convenient tie. The band should 
be within about two feet of the top, so that the shock may 
turn the rain. 

Fodder should not be left in the shock longer than 
necessary to become well cured. It should then be stored 
in ricks or barns. The practise of leaving shocks in the 
field over winter can not be too severely condemned. For 
the rains and wind destroy the most palatable and nutritious 
part of the plant and rob it of a large part of its food 
value. 

Harvesting by "hogging down." — Under certain con- 
ditions corn may be profitably harvested by "hogging down." 
This means that at the proper time a drove of hogs are 
turned into the field and allowed to feed themselves upon 
the corn. This method will work well only in cases where 
there is a drove of considerable number, and when the 
fields of corn are not too large. The field should be all 
cleaned up in from two to four weeks after the hogs are 
turned in, since rain and mud are likely to injure corn left 
too long on the ground. 

It has been found by farmers who have made careful 
tests of feeding corn in this way that more pork can be 
produced per bushel of corn when the hogs are allowed to 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 101 

feed themselves from the field than when they are hand 
fed. The labor of gathering and feeding the corn is also 
saved, and manure evenly distributed over the field. Fences 
are usually set up to divide the larger fields into small 
corn lots. Twenty-six-inch woven wire is suitable for this 
use. The wire is attached to well set, corner posts, and 
tightly stretched. It is then tied to the corn stalks for 
posts. This type of fence will last as long as is required 
for cleaning up the field. 

The Silo 

The silo has come into general use, especially on the best 
managed dairy farms. Although it will preserve any green, 
succulent growth such as clover, sorghum, cabbage, sugar 
beets, etc., the silo is employed almost wholly in this country 
for the storing, or "home canning," of corn without 
curing. 

For silage, the corn, when cut, should be ripened enough 
so that it has somewhat glazed, well-dented kernels, and 
the husks and leaves should have begun to die. If cut 
much earlier than this a great proportion of the feeding 
value of the crop will be lost. If cut much later, it will 
not pack well in the silo, nor be so palatable. 

Storing green corn in a silo is like canning vegetables. 
In fact, the silo is nothing but a large jar, air tight except at 
the top. When the green silage is put in, it soon begins to 
decay, and thus generates a great deal of heat. This process 
uses up all the air in the silage, producing a large amount 
of carbon dioxide. Finally, the heat and the lack of air stop 



102 



AGRICULTURE AND 



all decay, and the silage will keep for almost any length 
of time. Several inches of the silage on the top is certain 
to spoil, for it has sufficient air to keep up the decay. 
Decay will also take place where there is any leakage of 
air through the walls of the silo. 

Advantages in. use of silo. — ^There are many ad van- 




Silo construction showing the use of rail framework for 
support during construction. 



tages in the use of the silo. Even the harder and coarser 
parts of the stover, because cut when green and shredded 
into small pieces, are eaten. Probably about double the 
feeding value can be taken from an acre of corn by putting 
it into a silo rather than by shocking and feeding it from 
the field. This will allow nearly twice as much stock to 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 103 

be kept on a farm by use of tbe silo. Animals also need 
such a laxative food as the silage provides. 

Stock relish silage better than dry fodder, eat more of 
it and thrive better on it. Cattle prefer it to clover hay 
and eat it greedily even when fresh from good pasturage. 
Many farmers who make a business of dairying are coming 
to feed silage all through the summer as a supplement to 
pasturage. This has been found to pay because of the 
increased supply of milk produced. 

Size of the silo. — The size of the silo must depend on 
the number of the herd to be fed from it. Silage exposed 
to the air decays rapidly, especially in warm weather. In 
order to avoid waste it is necessary to feed from one and 
one-half to two inches daily from the surface of the silage. 
If the herd is small or the silo too great in diameter, this 
is impossible. 

Owing to the closer packing, silage is better in quality 
as the depth increases. It is, therefore, better to build a 
silo of considerable height rather than low and of greater 
diameter. Moderate-sized silos are built from thirty to 
forty feet deep. Silos are now being constructed with a 
water-tank in the top, into which water for house and barn 
use is pumped by a windmill. This gives the necessary 
pressure without the cost of building a tower for the tank. 

The following table shows the size of silos required for 
herds of diflferent sizes (allows each cow forty pounds a 
day for one hundred eighty days) : 



104 AGRICULTURE AND 



Number of 


Est 


imated Capaci 


ly 


Silo Diameter 


Silo Height 


Cows 




in tons 




ill Ft 


;et 


in Feet 


7 




26 




10 




20 


14 




51 




10 




32 


21 




73 




12 




32 


27 




101 




14 




32 


23 




119 




16 




36 


43 




155 




16 




36 


54 




196 




18 




36 



An average acre of corn will yield from eight to twelve 
tons of silage. Hence, knowing the capacity of the silo in 
tons, it is easy to compute the acreage of corn required to 
fill it. 

Twelve Silo Reasons 

(T. E. Woodward in Fanners' Bulletin 556.) 

1. More feed can be stored in a given space in the 
form of silage than in the form of fodder or hay. 

2. There is a smaller loss of food material when a 
crop is made into silage than when cured as fodder or hay. 

3. Corn silage is a better feed than corn fodder. 

4. An acre of corn can be placed in the silo at less 
cost than the same area can be husked and shredded. 

5. Crops can be put in the silo during weather that 
could not be utilized in making hay or curing fodder. 

6. More stock can be kept on a given area of land 
when silage is the basis of the ration. 

7. There is less waste in feeding silage than in feed- 
ing fodder. Good silage properly fed is all consumed. 

8. Silage is very palatable. 

9. Silage, like other succulent feeds, has a beneficial 
effect upon the digestive organs. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 1.05 

10. Silage is the cheapest and best form in which a 
succulent feed can be provided for winter use. 

11. Silage can be used for supplementing pasture more 
economically than can soiling crops, because it requires less 
labor, and silage is more palatable. 

12. Converting the corn crop into silage cleans the land 
and leaves it ready for another crop. 

TJic Uses of Corn 

Corn as human food. — Corn is a native of America. 
It was cultivated by the Indians before the coming of 
white men. Corn was the principal grain food used by the 
Indians, and was also widely used by the early colonists. 
Its use as a human food has now spread throughout almost 
the entire world, but it is still most widely used in this 
country. Corn-meal is the principal food product derived 
from corn, but hominy, hulled corn, corn grits, flaked corn 
and other specially prepared breakfast foods are also eaten. 
Corn starch is also a common food product. The unripe 
ears are extensively used and the canning of green corn 
through boys' corn-club work has become an important 
industry. 

Corn as food for animals. — By far the larger part of 
the corn crop is used, however, as food for animals. Corn 
is the basis of the great meat producing industry of the 
United States and along with grass constitutes the chief 
food of the animals used for meat. Farmers have found 
it more paying to fatten stock with corn and then sell the 
stock than to sell the corn itself. One reason for this is 



106 AGRICULTURE AND 

that it costs less to ship the meat produced by a bushel 
of corn than to ship the corn itself to a central market. 
One bushel of corn will produce from ten to twelve pounds 
of pork, which can be shipped more cheaply than could 
the bushel of corn. 

Commercial uses of corn. — Besides its use as a food 
for man and beast, corn is employed in manufacturing 
some thirty or forty different products. For example, from 
corn are made several different kinds of glucose used by 
refiners of table sirups, by brewers, by leather manu- 
facturers, by jelly makers, by fruit preservers, and by 
apothecaries. Corn also produces four different kinds of 
crystal glucose used in making candies and two kinds of 
grape sugar used by brewers and tanners. From corn there 
is made a sugar used in the manufacture of ale and beer. 
The pearl starch used by cotton and paper mills is made 
from corn, as is powdered starch used by the manufacturers 
of baking powder and by the cotton and paper mills. Florine 
used by flour mixers, and dextrins used in the making 
of white fabrics, paper boxes and the manufacture of 
mucilage and glue come from corn. 

From corn there is also manufactured a substitute for 
rubber, which is extensively used commercially. Corn is 
the chief source of the manufacture of all alcohol and 
whisky, and is the cheapest material now available for the 
making of denatured alcohol, which is used for heating, 
lighting and other commercial purposes. 

Uses of the corn stalk. — Even the corn stalk has 
numerous uses. For example, from its pith comes the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 107 

cellulose used for packing in war-ships. The corn pith has 
the quality of expanding when wet, and hence will imme- 
diately swell and close any small hole in the vessel caused 
by the enemy's shot. Com stalks are also used in the manu- 
facture of paper pulp and in various kinds of stock foods. 
Corn cobs are used in the making of corks and pipes. A 
special variety of corn with a large cob is raised in Missouri 
for the manufacture of pipes. It is estimated that ap- 
proximately fifty million bushels of corn are used annually 
for various corn products in addition to those intended as 
food for people and animals. 

The importance of corn as a food is increasing and 
scientists are discovering new ways of manufacturing or 
cooking it to make it both palatable and digestible. The 
very worst use that can be made of corn is to manufacture 
it into spirituous liquors, since the use of alcohol as a 
beverage injures those who drink it and brings sorrow, 
disgrace and poverty to the user. 



108 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER V 
WHEAT 

BREAD is the staff of life. Whatever else we may have 
on our tables we usually have bread. It is so com- 
mon and necessary an article of food that we describe pov- 
erty by saying, "Not a crust of bread in the house." 

Yet the bread that you and I eat — wheat bread — is really 
a rather recent addition to the world's food. True, wheat 
has been known for many centuries. But not until the last 
few generations has it been found possible to raise enough 
so that the great mass of people can have it daily for food. 

And even yet wheat as a common article of food is 
almost unknown in many nations. Probably more than 
half the people living in the world to-day have never tasted 
wheat bread such as we eat daily. Either wdieat is not 
grown, or it costs more than other foods and can not be 
afforded by the common people. In its stead they eat rice, 
barley and vegetables. 

Origin of wheat. — Just where wheat came from none 
can say. Some think it originated in the Valley of the Nile, 
or the Euphrates, or possibly that it may have come from 
Sicily. As far back as history goes there was wheat. 
Wherever it originated it seems to have developed from one 
of the wild grasses. Certain scientists think that it de- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 109 

scended from the lily. Others tell us that it is probably a 
descendant of wild ammer. 

But wherever wheat came from and however it may 
have developed, it is now one of the most important of 
grains, and from the point of view of human food, by far 
the most important. If one were compelled to live on a 
single type of food, wheat bread would no doubt carry him 
farther than any other one food article. 

It is in the United States that the raising of wheat has 
received its greatest impetus, for it was in this country that 
the practical reaper and the thrashing machine were 
invented and perfected, making it possible to harvest and 
thrash great crops of wheat, thus insuring cheap bread. 

Importance of Wheat as a Crop 

The United States raises more wheat than any other 
nation, and approximately half as much as all Europe com- 
bined. We supply about one-fifth of all the wheat grown 
in the world. Our annual crop is nearly 700,000,000 bush- 
els, enough if loaded into cars to make two solid trains, 
one reaching from New York to San Francisco, and the 
other from Regina to New Orleans. 

There is every reason why Americans have a right to be 
great wheat bread eaters, and we eat more wheat than the 
people of any other nation. The average for every person 
in the United States is about five bushels a year. These five 
bushels are passed through the flouring mill, coming out as 
a full barrel of flour, which is then baked up into some 
two hundred and fifty loaves of bread. 



110 AGRICULTURE AND 

A continuous harvest. — Wheat is a widely distrib- 
uted crop. It has been said that the sun never sets on the 
harvest fields of the world. If the click of the reaper is 
not heard round the world, it can at least be heard in some 
region during the greater part of the year. The annual 
wheat harvest begins in the month of January in Argentine 
and New Zealand. By February it has moved northward 
to East India, upper Egypt and Chili. 

With April the reapers are at work in lower Egypt, 
Asia Minor and Mexico. May sees the harvesting begin 
in Central America, China, Japan and Texas. By June the 
self-binders are at work in the fields of Turkey, in historic 
Spain, in beautiful France and in California, where giant 
reapers are drawn by twenty horses or by gasoline or steam 
tractors. At the same time the harvesters are busy at work 
in Tennessee, Virginia, Kentucky, Kansas, Utah and Mis- 
souri. By July the harvest is on in Rumania, Austria Hun- 
gary, southern Russia, England and Germany. During the 
same month in America the reapers are clicking in Oregon, 
Nebraska, Iowa, Wisconsin, Colorado, the group of central 
states. New England and eastern Canada. 

August is not quite so busy a month as July, but the 
wheat harvest is busy in Holland, Belgium, Denmark, Po- 
land, the Dakotas, northern Minnesota and western Canada. 

September brings the harvest to Scotland, Sweden, 
Norway, northern Russia and Siberia, where the busy 
reaper continues gathering the golden wheat well on into 
October. November finds the harvesters at work in south- 
ern Africa and in Peru. The year's harvest gleanings are 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 111 

completed in the month of December in Uruguay and Aus- 
tralia. There is thus not a month in the year when the 
golden stream of wheat is not issuing to feed hungry 
mouths in some region of the earth. 

Use of wheat increasing. — With modern methods of 
farming in vogue, the supply of wheat should constantly 
increase and its use be extended among peoples to whom it 
has heretofore been unknown. The present-day farmer, by 
the appHcation of modern scientific knowledge and the use 
of modern machinery, can, with three months' labor, pro- 
duce as much wheat as could the old Roman farmer working 
ten hours a day every day of his life for three score years 
and ten. In the time of Nero four and one-half days of 
labor were required to produce one bushel of wheat. At 
the time when McCormick invented his reaper, three hours 
were required to produce a bushel. In these days ten min- 
utes of time will serve to grow a bushel. Thus brains, 
energy and invention unite to save labor and to increase 
the world's food supply. 

The wheat belt of the United States. — The best wheat 
producing regions are in the Middle West and North. Kan- 
sas, North Dakota and Minnesota produce not far from 
one-third of all the wheat grown in the United States, 
If to these we add the following twelve states, Nebraska, 
South Dakota, Washington, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Mis- 
souri, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, California, Michigan and 
Oregon, we shall have the fifteen states that produce more 
than four-fifths of all our wheat. 

The yield of wheat. — The average yield of wheat for 



112 



AGRICULTURE AND 




^ 



TITE FARMTXr, BUSINESS 113 

the entire country is about half what it is for corn, or four- 
teen bushels to the acre. The states that produce the largest 
amount of wheat are not necessarily the ones that show the 
largest yield per acre. Taking the average for ten years, 
the ten states producing the largest amount of wheat rank 
in the following order in the yield per acre: Washington, 
first; Nebraska, second; Ohio, third; Illinois, fourth; Indi- 
ana, fifth ; Missouri, sixth ; Minnesota, seventh ; Kansas, 
eighth ; South Dakota, ninth ; North Dakota, tenth. 

The average yield of wheat is gradually increasing, but 
all too slowly. With still better methods of farming and 
with better selection of seed and improvement of the soil 
much larger crops of wheat can be raised. And this means 
cheaper bread, and more profit in farming. 

Types of Wheat 

Wheat is classed as winter wheat or spring wheat, de- 
pending on whether it is planted in the fall or the spring. 
It is also classed as hard or soft In accordance with the 
quality of the grain. 

There are three or more distinct types of winter wheat, 
and three of spring wheat, as follows : 

1. Soft winter wheat. 

2. Semi-hard winter wheat. 

3. Hard winter wheat. 

1. Soft spring wheat. 

2. Hard spring wheat. 

3. Macaroni wheat. 

These types furnish a great many different varieties, so 
many that it would be a hopeless task to try to learn them 



114 



AGRICULTURE AND 



all. The United States Department of Agriculture and the 
state experiment stations have tested as many as one thou- 
sand different varieties since 1895. 




A good stand of wheat, raised by a Georgia club boy. 

Climate and type. — In general, the more humid 
climate produces the soft wheats and dryer climates the hard 
wheats. The introduction of hard wheats has opened up 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 115 

vast western regions to wheat raising which were too dry 
for the soft varieties. 

Better flour is made from hard than from soft wheat, 
though a very excellent grade is made by mixing the two. 
Macaroni wheat is the hardest type, and is chiefly used in 
the manufacture of macaroni, though some of this type is 
now being used for flour. Macaroni thus far has not been 
made from the soft wheats. 

Winter wheat. — Winter w^heat is planted in the fall, 
lives through the winter and ripens the following summer. 
It requires about one hundred days to mature after growing 
weather has come in the spring. 

About two-thirds of all the wheat grown in the United 
States is of winter varieties. In regions where winter 
wheat will withstand the extremes of temperature it is pre- 
ferred to spring varieties, since it (1) yields more, and 
(2) is more free from disease and from injury by the vari- 
ous insect pests. 

Kansas and Nebraska are the great centers for the 
hard winter varieties, while east of the Mississippi River the 
softer winter varieties are chiefly grown. More than sixty 
per cent, of all the winter wheat grown in the United 
States is raised in the states of Kansas, Indiana, Nebraska, 
Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma and 
Texas. 

Spring wheat. — Spring wheat is adapted to localities 
where climatic conditions are not favorable to winter vari- 
eties. About one-third of our wheat comes from the spring- 
sowed crop. Most varieties of spring wheat require from 



116 AGRICULTURE AND 

one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five days from the 
date of planting to mature them. 

Minnesota, North Dakota and South Dakota are the 
principal spring wheat regions of the country. These three 
states supply seventy per cent, of all the spring wheat 
grown in the United States. 

The grain dealers' National Association has adopted 
certain classifications and grading of wheat for market pur- 
poses. These grades are as follows : 

White winter wheat Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
Red winter wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
Hard winter wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
Northern spring wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
Spring wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
Durum wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
Velvet chaff wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
Pacific Coast red wheat, Nos. 1, 2 and 3. 
Pacific Coast white wheat, Nos. 1, 2 and 3. 

It is therefore seen that most types of wheat are divided 
into four classes, the Pacific Coast Red, and the Pacific 
Coast White wheat being the only two types given but 
three grades. The distinction between the different grades 
within any one type is shown by the following rules which 
govern in the grading and market quotations of hard win- 
ter wheat: 

No. 1 hard winter wheat shall include all varieties of pure, 
hard winter Avheat, sound, plump, dry and well cleaned, 
and weigh not less than sixty-one pounds to the measured 
bushel. 

No. 2 hard winter wheat shall include all varieties of hard 
winter wheat of both light and dark colors, dry, sound, sweet 
and clean, and weigh not less than fifty-nine pounds to the 
measured bushel. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



117 



No. 3 hard winter' wheat shall include all varieties of hard 
winter wheat of both light and dark colors, not clean or plump 
enough for No. 2 and weigh not less than fifty-six pounds to 
the measured bushel. 

No. 4 hard winter wheat shall include all varieties of hard 
winter wheat of both light and dark colors. It may be damp, 
musty, or dirty, and weigh not less than fifty pounds to the 
measured bushel. 

Similar rules govern the grading of the other types. 




>f/wfpf M 




KUB/^NH/^ RED FIFE MINN BweSTEM. 

Commou varieties of wheat. 



Groiv'xng the Wheat Crop 

Wheat grows best on virgin soil, or on land that has 
been renewed by means of forage crops, such as clover, 
alfalfa, manure, or some other form of fertilizer. The 
new regions opened up in the West at first produce large 
crops, but soon fail in yield if wheat is raised continuously 
without a plan of rotation with other crops. ^ 



118 AGRICULTURE AND 

Preparing the seed bed. — Since wheat is one of the 
crops that can not be cultivated after planting, the seed bed 
should be prepared with especial care. The ground should 
be plowed, and then disked or harrowed until it is well 
packed and finely pulverized. The preparation for the fall 
and spring seeding Is essentially the same. If the ground 
is new, the plowing may be shallow. The older soils require 
deeper plowing. 

Spring wheat is sometimes disked in on corn land with- 
out first plowing the ground. This, however, is a careless 
method of farming, and has been proved by careful experi- 
ments not to secure so large a yield as from plowed land. 

Selecting and preparing the seed. — As in the case 
of corn, the best seed for wheat is usually that grown near 
home. New varieties and seed grown at a distance should 
not be used for the general crop until carefully tested by 
agricultural experiment stations and found adapted to the 
climate and soil of your locality. 

Wheat selected for seed should possess the following 
qualities: (1) a plump bright grain of good wheat; (2) 
a stiff straw, able to withstand adverse weather; (3) a 
compact head, ripening early, and not easily shattered ; (4) 
good bread qualities; and (5) ability to resist insect ene- 
mies and diseases. 

Once the type and variety selected for seed are decided 
upon, the wheat should be run through a fanning mill. 
This will select the heaviest and plumpest grains, as well 
as remove the seed of noxious weeds. If care is taken thus 
to secure the best of the crop for seed each year, there need 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 119 

be no fear of the seed "running out." On the contrary, the 
variety may actually be improved. 

Methods of planting. — The method formerly used in 
planting wheat was to sow it broadcast on the plowed 
ground, and then harrow it in. This is a very wasteful way 
of planting, however, since some of the wheat fails to be 
covered, and is picked up by the birds; some of it is just 
barely covered, and fails to secure good roots; and some 
of it is covered too deep, and grows imperfectly. 

The method now used in all successful farming is to 
plant the wheat with a drill. This sets the seed at a uni- 
form depth, and gives it a moist fine bed of soil. Nu- 
merous experiments have shown that the best depth to 
plant wheat for average years is from one and a half 
to three inches. Wheat, like corn, loses both time and 
strength by being planted too deep. 

Wherever possible, wheat should be drilled in rows run- 
ning east and west. In dry regions, the prevailing winds 
then blow snow and dirt into the drills instead of out of 
them, as is the case when the rows run north and south. 
In east-and-west rows the drill also tends to shade the roots 
of the plant, and so protect them from the frequent thaw- 
ings and freezings which occur in the case of winter wheat 
when the sun shines directly into the drill. Because of 
these uses of the drill ridges, the ground should not be 
harrowed after the wheat is sown. 

Harvesting the wheat. — Except in the great plains or 
semi-arid regions of the West where practically no rain falls 
during the harvest season, wheat should be cut as soon as it 



120 



AGRICULTURE AND 



is ripe enough. Many farmers allow their wheat to become 
so ripe as to shatter, and much loss resuUs. It may be cut 
while the grain is still soft, so that it can be crushed 
between the thumb and finger. This will not injure very 
much the quality of the grain, and the straw will be of much 
greater value if cut slightly green. Early cutting also "re- 
duces the risk of storms. 




Harvesting wheat with a modern binder. 



In regions where the grain can be allowed to stand with- 
out shattering until it has become fully ripe and dry, the 
cutting and thrashing are often accomplished in one process. 
This is done by a combination harvester and thrasher drawn 
by from twenty to thirty horses, or by a tractor engine or 
motor. 

Wheat cut with the harvester should be carefully 
shocked, usually in nine-bundle shocks, eight bundles stand- 
ing firmly on the ground in the form of a circle, and the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 121 

ninth used for a cap-sheaf. Careless shocking is respon- 
sible for much loss from weathering. 

When the wheat is well dried in the shock, it should 
at once be thrashed, or else stacked in well-built stacks. 
Wheat is too valuable to leave standing long in the field 
waiting for a thrashing machine. If once put in stacks, 
it should be allowed to stand for several weeks before 
thrashing in order that it may "pass through the sweat." 

Diseases and Insect Enemies of Wheat 

Wheat is the prey of many different diseases and insect 
enemies, which sometimes almost totally destroy the crop. 
Many of these are coming to be better understood, and rem- 
edies for them devised. Three principal diseases attacking 
wheat are scab, rust and stnut. These are all caused by the 
growth of fungi on the wheat plant. A fungus is a tiny 
plant organism that grows upon some other plant, or on 
animal tissue, and draws its living from its host. We call 
any organism that gets its living off another organism in this 
or a similar way a parasite. 

Scab in wheat. — Scab is the least common of the three 
diseases mentioned, yet it sometimes causes much loss in 
certain localities. It attacks the glumes, or chaff, which 
surround the kernels of wheat in the head. The entire head 
is seldom destroyed, only a few of the glumes being af- 
fected. Scab results in a shrinkage of the kernels, and 
hence a reduction in the yield and an injury of the quality 
of the wheat. No cure has yet been discovered for wheat 
scab. A second crop of wheat should not follow wheat 
that has been affected with scab. If this is necessary, how- 



122 AGRICULTURE AND 

ever, the stubble of the first crop should be burned to de- 
stroy as much of the scab as possible. 

Rust in wheat. — Rust is one of the most serious en- 
emies of the wheat crop. It is nearly always present in 
some degree, and has at times almost wholly destroyed the 
crop over considerable areas. There are two kinds of 
rust, one attacking the leaves and the other the stems of 
the plants. The stem rust is much more destructive than 
the leaf rust. 

Rust may in some cases live over winter on the old 
plants, and be ready to attack the new crop if wheat is 
again planted on the field. Wheat rust also lives on other 
plants, especially the barberry, and is spread from them by 
birds or insects to wheat-fields. Laws have been passed in 
some states requiring the destruction of barberry hedges 
because of their part in spreading rust. 

Moist seasons are more favorable to the ravages of 
rust than dry. Rust results in weakening the stem of the 
wheat plant, and reducing the size and quality of the grain. 
In some cases the heads even fail to fill, and the crop is a 
total failure. There is no known cure for rust, though cer- 
tain varieties of wheat are better able to resist it than 
others. The earlier varieties are usually safer than the 
later. 

Smut in wheat. — There are two kinds of smut that 
attack the wheat plant, loose smut and stinking smut. Loose 
smut usually destroys both the glumes and the kernels, leav- 
ing only the bare stem. Stinking smut grows inside the 
glumes, destroying the kernel only, and taking its place. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



123 




Stinking smut of whent; smutted head and smut balls at 
right ; sound head and kernels at left. 



124 AGRICULTURE AND 

The spores from which stinking smut grows attach them- 
selves to the kernels of wheat, and are therefore often 
sown with the seed. This fact makes it possible to combat 
this type of smut by treating wheat seed in such a way as 
to kill any smut spores that may be present. 

One of the surest and cheapest ways of treating the 
seed for stinking smut is by the application of a solution 
of formalin. One pint of forty per cent, formalin mixed 
in forty-five gallons of water will treat one hundred bushels 
of wheat. The wheat may be spread out thin on a tight 
floor and sprinkled with the moisture, shoveling it over 
so that each grain is sure to become dampened. 

After it is well sprinkled the wheat should be covered 
with sacks or blankets to keep it from drying out too rap- 
idly. After a few hours, it may be spread out, or stirred, to 
hasten the drying in preparation for sowing. Ten pounds of 
copper sulphate dissolved in twenty-five gallons of water 
may be used instead of the formalin. 

Loose smut may be prevented by what is called the hot- 
water treatment of the seed. The wheat is put into sacks 
and immersed in tubs of water warmed to a temperature 
of one hundred and twenty degrees Fahrenheit. When the 
wheat has become thoroughly warmed, it is taken Out, 
drained and again dipped in water, this time heated to 
a temperature of one hundred and thirty-five degrees. The 
sacks may now, be dipped at once in cold water, which will 
serve to keep the kernels from swelling. The wheat should 
then be spread where it will dry quickly. The general use 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



125 



^'^^mstxri' 




Loose smut of wheat. Pound head at left; different stages of 
smutted development at right. 



126 AGRICULTURE AND 

of these well tested remedies should make smut of rare 
occurrence. 

The Hessian fly. — Among the insect enemies of the 
wheat crop, probably none does more damage than the 
Hessian fly. On years when this insect is particularly 
bad hundreds of thousands of acres are either totally 
destroyed or so injured that the yield is only half or one- 
fourth what it should otherwise be. 

The Hessian fly was brought to this country, prob- 
ably from Europe, at some time during the latter half of 
the eighteenth century. It w^as thought by some to have 
been imported by the Hessians in the straw used for 
their bedding while they were being brought over by the 
British to fight against the Americans in the Revolu- 
tionary War. 

The insect is small and mosquito-like, the body being 
about one-tenth of an inch long and of a dark color. The 
larvae attack the young wheat plant, sapping its strength 
and causing the straw to break over before harvest. 

Methods for controlling the Hessian fly are, as in the 
case of many other insect enemies, not wholly successful. 
The danger can be guarded against however, by sowing 
only the best of seed, in thoroughly prepared, fertile soil. 
For winter wheat the seeding should be rather late, after the 
major portion of the fall brood of insects has made its ap- 
pearance and passed out of existence. For spring sowing 
the best plan is to seed as early as possible, allowing the 
plant to get well under way before the flies are ready for 
the attack. It is safer for either winter or spring wheat to 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 127 

avoid gowing on the ground used for wheat the preceding 
year. Rotation of crops, as in the case of other grains, 
leaves the insect pests without food and causes them to 
migrate in order to continue their existence. 

Chinch-bugs. — Chinch-bugs are among the worst of 
the insect enemies of wheat. They are easily recognized as 
a small dark-colored insect, with white wing covers. 
Chinch-bugs damage the wheat by sucking the sap from 
the plant, and thus checking its growth. The mature bugs 
live over winter, lay their eggs in the spring, and the young 
are soon hatched out, showing at first a reddish color. 

No effective way of controlling chinch-bugs has yet 
been discovered. It is, however, helpful to burn the rub- 
bish of any infected field in the fall, as this will destroy 
large numbers of the bugs, and leave many of the remainder 
to perish during winter without hiding-places. 

Grasshoppers. — Grasshoppers are less to be dreaded 
now than in earlier years, though they occasionally do great 
damage to the wheat crop. The grasshopper lays its eggs 
in the summer, and they do not hatch until the following 
spring. It is possible greatly to reduce their number by 
late, deep fall plowing, which buries the eggs so deep 
that the young when hatched do not find their way to the 
surface. Poisonous sprays are also used to destroy the 
young hoppers. 

Improving Wheat 

Wheat is somewhat easier to improve than corn, owing 
to the fact that wheat is usually close-fertilized and there- 



128 AGRICULTURE AND 

fore does not have a tendency to mix as does corn. One 
may grow several varieties of wheat on adjoining plats and 
each plat will produce pure seed regardless of the surround- 
ing varieties. 

Improvement by selection. — The improving of wheat 
is commonly carried on by what is called selection. A con- 
siderable number of wheat plants grown on a special plat, 
or even under ordinary field conditions, are examined and 
all the poorer plants, or those that show any undesirable 
qualities, are destroyed. The desirable plants, or those show- 
ing the special qualities sought, are allowed to mature and 
the grains used as seed for the next crop. This is the 
method that Burbank has used in producing some of his 
most wonderful results in plant breeding. 

In order to unite desirable characters in two varieties of 
wheat, artificial fertilizing is sometimes resorted to. This is 
to say that ripe pollen is taken from the head of one plant 
and dusted on the stigmas of the head of another from 
which the anthers have been removed. The uniting of two 
varieties in this way will often produce striking results. It 
requires several generations to fix the particular character 
or quality of the wheat plant sought by the crossing of va- 
rieties. While it is possible to produce desirable varieties 
in this way, by far the greater number of our most valuable 
types of wheat have been developed as the result of selec- 
tion. 

The United States Department of Agriculture and each 
of the state collesjes of agriculture has a score-card for 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



129 




130 



AGRICULTURE AND 



the judging of wheat. These differ some of course, but the 
f ollowmg is a fair sample : 

SCORE-CARD FOR SEED WHEAT 

Minnesota Experiment Station 



Standard 
Score 



YIELD Weight per bushel 25 

30 Points Uniformity 5 

VARIETY Color 3 

CHARACTERS Purity 10 

15 Points Kernel Shape 2 

Luster 5 

VITALITY Plumpness 15 

30 Points Germ 3 

Odor 7 

Weed Seed 10 

MARKET Dirt and Dust 3 

CONDITION Injured Kernels 2 

25 Points Smut, etc. 5 

Condition of Bran 5 

100 Points Total 100 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 131 



CHAPTER VI 
OATS 

OATS are one of the world's most most important grain 
crops. Like our other cultivated grains, the oat orig- 
inated in some wild ancestral form, — just when and how is 
not definitely known. There is reason to believe that oats 
are a later development than wheat or barley, and were not 
known to the early Egyptians, Greeks or Romans. 

Origin of oats. — As a cultivated crop, oats were prob- 
ably first raised in central and northern Europe over terri- 
tory now comprising Austria and Russia. At first oats 
were used only for the feeding of animals, and were em- 
ployed as human food only during times of scarcity of other 
grains. It is only in comparatively recent years that oats 
have been thought of as one of the prominent food cereals. 

Oats were brought to this country by the early settlers 
and are now grown in every state. The United States 
produces about one-fourth of all of the oats grown in the 
world. The crop does best in cool moist climate, and its 
production is practically confined to temperate zones. 

Importance of the Oat Crop 

Our oat crop is slightly more than a billion bushels a 
year, or a total yield of about one-third more than wheat. 



132 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 133 

Because of the higher price of wheat, however, the value 
of the oat crop is only about half that of wheat. Among 
all farm crops, oats rank fifth in value, being surpassed only 
by corn, cotton, wheat and hay. 

The oat region. — The great oat producing region of 
the United States extends from New York and Pennsyl- 
vania westward to Nebraska, Kansas and the Dakotas. 
Each state in this great chain plants more than a million 
acres of oats annually. 

The following thirteen states produce about four-fifths 
of all the oats raised in the United States : Iowa, Illinois, 
Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, Indiana, North Dakota, Ne- 
braska, Michigan, Kansas, New York, South Dakota, Penn- 
sylvania. 

The yield and profit. — The average yield per acre 
throughout the United States is about thirty bushels. The 
highest yields are in the far Northwest, where the rainfall 
is heavy during the growing season, or where irrigation is 
used. Here the crop not uncommonly runs from one hun- 
dred to one hundred and twenty-five bushels to the acre, 
and sometimes reaches one hundred and fifty bushels. 

Sixteen southern states have an aggregate of about 
twelve per cent, of the oat acreage of the United States, and 
produce nine per cent, of the total crop. While the average 
yield for the United States is thirty bushels, It is twenty-two 
bushels for the southern states. Owing to the higher price 
per bushel generally ruling in the South oats yield about as 
big returns in this region as in the North. 

In the corn belt, oats are usually a less profitable crop 



134 AGRICULTURE AND 

than corn. The yield is less per acre, and the market price 
lower, while the cost of production is about the same. 
Iowa and Illinois are the two leading states in the amount of 
oats produced. The cost of growing an acre of oats if we 
include the rental value of the land, will average from ten 
to twelve dollars. When oats are thirty-five cents a bushel, 
it is evident that a crop of thirty bushels to the acre leaves no 
margin of profit. 

While oats do not pay so well as corn, it is necessary, 
nevertheless, to raise them, even in the corn region. For 
oats are needed, (1) to make possible the rotation of crops, 
and (2) as a food for stock, especially working horses. 
This crop, like corn and wheat, can easily be increased in 
yield and profit by improving the soil and employing bet- 
ter methods of seed selection and tillage. It is not impos- 
sible to secure an average yield of from fifty to seventy-five 
bushels to the acre throughout the oat region. 

Types of Oats 

Two general types or classes of oats are easily dis- 
tinguished — the spreading, or panicled, and the side-bearing 
or horse-mane. The former has a spreading, bush-like 
head, branching from all sides of the central stem; the 
latter carries the grains on short branches, all of which are 
attached to one side of the stem. 

Varieties for different regions. — It is impossible to 
tell how many different varieties of these two types exist. 
As in the case of wheat and corn, new varieties are being 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



135 



mt ii j^iin j'x j i _, I ii^ I ^ mill hiM 



•#^ 



^\ 



r ft H 




' nU-^ 












'; -^^ 






Two types of oat heads: spreading or panicled on the left; 
side or horse-mane on the right. 



136 



AGRICULTURE AND 



developed from year to year. Several hundred different 
varieties are now shown in the seed lists. 

In New England, the northern tier of states and the 
Rocky Mountain region, white oats of rather late-ma- 
turing, large-grained varieties are usually most successful. 



pr:i:M\- " ■ ""■ 




i 


' i 




Two common varieties of oats. 

Some examples of these varieties belonging to the spreading 
type are: Clydesdale, Big Four, Swedish Select and Lin- 
coln; of the horse-mane type, White Russian and Tartarian 
are well known. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



137 



In the JMissouri, Mississippi and Ohio River regions, 
extending- as far south as Kansas, ]\Iissouri, Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee and Texas, and as far east as Ohio, small-grained, 
early, yellow varieties have proved the best. The Kherson, 
Silvermine, Big Four and Sixty Day are examples of these 
varieties. 




B 



D 



(A) Sixty Day, grain medium-sized, slender, yellow; (B) Red 
Rustproof, grain large, plump, reddisli-hrown; (C) North 
Finnish Black, grain medium-sized, plump, black; (D) Swedish 
Select, grain white, large and plump. 

Successful fall seeding of oats is possible only in the 
southern states. For southern fall seeding, Winter Turf 
and Red Rustproof are the varieties most used. For spring 
seeding in this region the Burt and Red Rustproof are quite 
satisfactory. 



138 AGRICULTURE AND 

Raising the Crop 

Oats are usually planted with less care than any other 
crop. Where they follow corn in the rotation of crops, 
they are often sown broadcast on the corn land without 
previous cultivation or preparation of the ground. The 
field is then either disked or gone over with a cultivator 
and harrowed. This is a careless method of farming, and 
undoubtedly results in a diminished yield. 

Preparing the seed bed. — When oats are sown after 
corn the seed bed should be prepared by plowing or two 
thorough diskings before seeding. The oats may then be 
covered by harrowing. The corn stalks should be broken 
down before disking. This can easily be done by means 
of a heavy pole dragged broadside across the rows when 
the ground is frozen. A still better method is to cut the 
stalks with a corn cutter. If the growth of stalks and weeds 
is especially heavy on the field, it is best to rake and burn 
the rubbish to get it out of the way of cultivation. 

It sometimes may not be necessary to plow the ground 
for oats following a well cultivated crop. Especially is this 
true if the plowing can not be done in the fall. One of the 
things most necessary in growing oats is to get the seed 
into the ground as early as it can be worked in the spring. 
And the seeding can be done more quickly by disking than 
by plowing. There is little or no danger to oats from 
freezing after they are sown, and the seed will sprout and 
grow in a much colder temperature than that necessary for 
corn. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 139 

Methods of seeding. — Oats are sown by two methods, 
(1) scattering the seed broadcast over the ground, and (2) 
drilling. The old method of broadcast seeding was to scat- 
ter the seed by hand from a sack slung over the shoulder. 
Machines for seeding have been devised which can be oper- 
ated by hand, and another which may be attached to the 
end-gate of a wagon. The seeder is driven by one of the 
rear wheels of the wagon by means of a sprocket and 
chain. 

Drilling has been found to result in a larger yield than 
broadcast seeding. The drill plants the seed uniformly over 
the field and covers it well. The drilled crop comes up 
more evenly, and ripens more nearly at the same time than 
that from broadcast sowing. Less seed is required when 
the planting is done with the drill, since practically all the 
seed is covered and given a chance to grow. This is im- 
possible with broadcast seeding. 

A mistake is often made in planting oats too deep. The 
ground is usually moist when the planting is done, and depth 
is not required to secure moisture to start growth. Many 
agricultural experiment stations have tested different depths 
of planting, and recommend about one inch as the best 
depth for most regions. 

Preparing the seed. — Seed oats should never be taken 
directly from the bin and sown, no matter how promising 
the grain looks. For oats ordinarily contain more dirt, 
weed seed and light grains than wheat. 

The seed should always be run through the fanning mill. 
The current of air blows out the light grains and much of 



140 AGRICULTURE AND 

the rubbish, and the smaller grains are removed by the 
sieves. This process of cleaning should generally exclude 
one-third or one-fourth of the oats run through the mill. 
If the seed is very light a still larger proportion will need 
to be rejected. 

Careful tests have shown that seed prepared in this 
way will yield several bushels to the acre more than if 
sown directly from the bin. Many of the light grains fail 
to sprout, and most of those that grow produce weak 
plants that yield little or nothing. It will well pay every 
farmer to take time in the winter to prepare his seed oats. 

Improvement of the seed. — It is possible greatly to 
improve a variety of oats by careful selection of the seed. 
This may be done by going into the field just before the 
crop is harvested, and gathering, head by head, the strong- 
est, largest grained and best yielding plants, also giving 
preference to those that are freest from disease. From a 
peck to a bushel or more thus selected is thrashed out, the 
small, light or imperfect grains rejected, and the choice 
seed sown on a special seed plat to raise seed for the com- 
ing year's crop. 

Harvesting the crop. — Oats are harvested with the 
grain binder, the header, the mowing machine, and the 
combined harvester and thrasher. By far the greater part 
of our oat crop is cut with the binder. 

The best time for cutting oats is just as they are pass- 
ing out of the hard-dough stage of ripening. On account 
of the fact that they shatter rather easily when ripe, it may 
be necessary, especially if the acreage is large, to begin 



THE FAR^rrXG BUSINESS 141 

when the grain is passing out of the milk stage. Cutting 
too early leaves the grain slightly lighter and of a greenish 
color. 

The best method of shocking oats depends on the ripe- 
ness of the crop when harvested. If the oats are in the 
hard-dough stage when cut, they should be shocked in well- 
built, round shocks. If the grain is green and the straw 
heavy or full of weeds, the long shock is better, since it 
allows freer curing. Either type of shock should be capped, 
except in regions where the winds are usually strong enough 
to blow a cap sheaf off, in which case it takes damage from 
lying on the ground. 

Thrashing. — Oats may be thrashed from the shock, 
or stacked and thrashed any time during the fall. A some- 
what better grade of oats is obtained by stacking and allow- 
ing the oats to "go through the sweat" before thrashing. 
The straw is also worth more for feed when the oats have 
cured in the stack. 

The custom followed by careless farmers of leaving 
grain standing for weeks in the shock exposed to the 
weather while waiting for the thrashing machine can not 
be too strongly condemned. A period of hot wet weather 
is almost certain to start the oats to molding or sprouting 
in the shock. On the other hand, if the weather is very 
dry, the oats shatter, and many bushels are lost in handling. 
If the thrashing machine can not be secured as soon as the 
oats have dried sufficiently to thrash, they should be stacked 
in well-built round stacks so constructed as to turn the 
rains. 



142 AGRICULTURE AND 

Insect Enemies and Diseases 

Oats are, on the whole, subject to fewer diseases, and 
the prey of fewer insects than wheat. Tlie crop is, there- 
fore, less liable to total failure from these causes. 

Insect enemies. — Chinch-bugs attack oats, as well as 
wheat, though they usually do much less damage to oats 
than to wheat. They can be controlled only as already 
described in the case of wheat. 

In some seasons the army worm has caused much loss 
to oats, but usually not over extensive areas. There is 
no satisfactory method known of controlling its ravages. 
What is known as the green hug, a grain aphis, is one 
of the most prominent enemies of oats. Grasshoppers occa- 
sionally consume the greater part of the crop in relatively 
small areas. 

Diseases of oats. — The chief diseases attacking oats 
are rusts and smuts. These are of the same general char- 
acter as the rusts and smuts of wheat, fungous growths 
feeding on the growing plant. 

The rusts are of two chief types: (1) leaf rust, which 
is of a reddish-brown color, and attacks the leaves, and in 
some degree the stems, of oats shortly before ripening time ; 
and (2) stem rust, which is to be recognized as black spots 
appearing on the stems and leaves of oats just before they 
ripen. 

Stem rust is less common than leaf rust, but when 
present is far more injurious to the crop. Tlie rusts are 
more serious as an enemy of oats in the South than in the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



143 




Smut of oats: smutted head at right; sound head at left. 



144 AGRICULTURE AND 

North, appearing in the South almost every year, and greatly 
reducing the yield. Rust is far worse in moist hot sea- 
sons than in dry seasons. No sure cure has been discovered 
for rust in oats, though some varieties are more able to 
resist its attack than others. 

Smut ordinarily causes more injury to oats than any 
other disease. It has been estimated that from two to three 
per cent, of the entire crop is destroyed every year by smut, 
causing a loss of from $6,000,000 to $10,000,000. 

The smut of oats is easily recognized a little time before 
the crop is ripe. Instead of the kernels are found small 
masses of smut dust which have taken the place of the 
grain. Sometimes these smut balls are covered by the 
chaff, much as the kernel should be, and other times the 
chaff is lacking and the smut fully exposed. 

While there are two kinds of smut in oats, both will 
yield to the same treatment. Smut may be wholly pre- 
vented by treating the seed with formalin, as described 
for the treatment of wheat. It may sometimes be effec- 
tually prevented by the hot-water treatment. In either 
treatment the method is practically the same as for the seed 
wheat. With so simple and sure a remedy for smut, every 
farmer who lives in a smut region should treat his seed 
before sowing. It costs very little, and may result in an 
increase of several bushels of oats to the acre. 



THE FARAIIXG BUSINESS 145 



CHAPTER VII 
AGRICULTURE IN TIIE SOUTH 

A GRICULTURE is the chief of southern industries, 
XJL3.nd the South and Southwest are favored above many 
other regions of the United States in agricultural conditions. 
This territory has an excellent climate, long growing sea- 
sons, and, in most regions, a naturally rich, productive soil. 
Almost every crop that can be raised in the North will 
grow successfully in the South, and many others besides. 
The South has no long hard winters to close the soil to 
cultivation and enforce idleness upon the farmers. 

Almost every class of farm animal thrives throughout 
the South. Cattle, horses, hogs and poultry can be grown 
more cheaply here than in northern regions, for forage is 
available most of the year; warm and expensive bams 
are not required; nor must a large amount of feed be 
stored against the long winter months. Hence the profit on 
live stock should be greater. 

More home production needed. — In spite of natural 
advantages, however, the South has not diversified its in- 
dustries so widely as has the North. From this it results 
that the South buys from the North many things it could 
easily produce at home. Farm machinery, clothing, canned 
fruits and vegetables, cereal foods, meats, furniture and 



146 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 147 

household utensils, and many other articles are shipped in 
and paid for out of the proceeds of a relatively narrow 
range of crops and manufacturing industries. But the 
South is awakening industrially and, when it has fully real- 
ized its wonderful resources and opportunities, it will then 
be able successfully to compete with other regions for 
wealth and commercial supremacy. 

Diversified Farming in the South 

By diversified farming is meant the growing of a num- 
ber of diflferent crops instead of devoting practically the 
whole farm to one crop, such as cotton. 

Tendency to one-crop system. — Not only in the South 
but in many regions of the North and West as well, there 
has been a tendency to a one-crop system. Great areas 
of the North have been devoted to corn or wheat, while 
many new regions of the West raise wheat almost exclu- 
sively. The principal crop of many regions of the South 
has been cotton, which has in some places been grown suc- 
cessively on the same soil for twenty-five or fifty years. 

Several causes have led to a one-crop system of agri- 
culture. In certain cases the soil is better adapted to some 
one crop than to others and will therefore yield a larger 
profit to the farmer. The natural tendency therefore is 
to plant chiefly the crop that will bring the largest imme- 
diate returns. Again, where but one crop is raised a smaller 
assortment of tools and implements is required ; hence 
less expense is needed for equipment. It is also easier to 
learn the art of farming where but one crop is used than 



148 AGRICULTURE AND 

where a number are grown, each requiring a different sys- 
tem of planting, cultivating and harvesting. Certain crops 
may also find a more ready and constant market than 
others, thus encouraging farmers to grow the product that 
can be most easily turned into cash. 

Disadvantages of one-crop system.— There are a great 
many disadvantages, however, connected with the one-crop 
system. These disadvantages are at present felt more in the 
South than in any other region of the United States, largely 
because cotton has been almost the only crop raised. It is 
probably not too much to say that cotton, while it has been 
a source of wealth to the South, has also been its greatest 
industrial handicap. For many southern regions that should 
produce a wide variety of crops have devoted practically all 
their energies to the raising of cotton. And any one-crop 
system invites disaster in the end. 

First, any one-crop system is sure to wear out the soil. 
This is easily seen from the fact that the crop must re- 
move the same elements from the soil year after year. And, 
without the return of sufficient fertilizer to make up this 
loss, the soil is depleted until only a fraction of its orig- 
inal fertility remains. Northern and western regions where 
virgin prairie soil easily produced forty to fifty bushels 
of wheat to the acre found that after some years of wheat 
growing without any rotation of crops the yield had been 
reduced to a half or a quarter of what it was upon the new 
soil. In a similar way, thousands of acres of southern 
land that originally produced large crops of cotton have 
now become so impoverished as to yield only a small part 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



149 




150 AGRICULTURE AND 

of what the soil is capable of producing, and must be care- 
fully reclaimed by rotation of crops, fertilization and spe- 
cial methods of cultivation. 

Second, a one-crop system encourages the growth of 
plant enemies in the soil. The insects that feed upon the 
crop one season are left upon the field ready to reproduce 
their kind and attack the next season's crop. Various 
bacteria and fungous enemies also have a tendency to mul- 
tiply when the same crop is produced from year to year. 
Let the crop be changed, however, and the insects and 
fungi, not finding the necessary food, die and the field is 
in a measure cleared of their danger. Weed enemies dis- 
appear in a similar way In the presence of the new crop. 

Third, a one-crop system always leaves the farmer at 
the mercy of weather conditions. If the season turns out 
too dry or too wet, or in any other way unfavorable so 
that a failure of the crop results, the farmer is left with- 
out resources and faces financial failure. If, on the other 
hand, he has a variety of crops, seasonal troubles which 
affect one crop may not affect others, so that the farmer 
does not suffer an entire loss. If he raises but one crop 
and the insect enemies or other reverses prove strong 
enough to ruin the crop, he is left in poverty. But the 
various plant enemies require dififerent seasonal conditions 
for their best thriving; hence when they attack one crop 
they are not so likely to injure others. 

Fourth, one of the most serious disadvantages of a 
one-crop system is the changing market conditions. If for 
any reason the market happens to fail for the par- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 151 

ticular crop raised, no matter how good the yield may 
have been, the farmer is helpless with the crop left on 
his hands. This was well illustrated when in the season 
of 1914 the South had hundreds of thousands of bales of 
cotton for which there was no market because of the Euro- 
pean war. Thousands of southern farmers found them- 
selves almost bankrupt with a large cotton crop on their 
hands. And throughout the European war the shipping of 
cotton was so uncertain as to demoralize the market and 
leave the whole financial situation in the South in a chaotic 
state. The farmer who produced several different crops 
instead of one could not be caught in this condition. 

Fifth, diversified farming produces an income for the 
farmer at different seasons of the year, whereas a one- 
crop system brings in all its returns at one time, leaving 
the remainder of the year practically without income. In 
this case the running expenses of the home must often 
cause the farmer to go into debt, and his crop is not in- 
frequently mortgaged before it is harvested, and must be 
sold even at a low price in order to meet the debt. 

Sixth, no one-crop system affords a wide enough range 
of forage and grains to enable the farmer to raise the stock 
which every farm should have. Successful farmers every- 
where are coming to depend more and more on farm stock 
as a large part of the profit from agriculture. 

Advantages from diversified farming. — From these 
facts it is easy to see some of the chief advantages of di- 
versified farming. Through raising a variety of products 
and thereby rotating the crops the farmer can build up 



152 AGRICULTURE AND 

and renovate the soil. He can free his crops from the 
worst dangers of insects and other enemies. He can 
relieve himself of the danger of entire failure coming from 
an adverse season or other conditions threatening the suc- 
cess of one particular crop. He can become relatively 
independent of poor market conditions affecting any one 
crop or can secure for his farm an income that is dis- 
tributed throughout the year so that he need not go into 
debt for the current expenses of his farm and household. 
Diversified farming inckides the raising of a variety of stock 
as well as a variety of crops, and thus adds to the income 
while at the same time it reduces the danger of failure 
through the loss of any one crop. 

Crops Suitable for Southern Farms 

Frequent failure of cotton to find a profitable market 
and the ravages of the boll weevil have induced many south- 
ern farmers to add crops which they had not previously 
raised on their farms. 

The cereals. — Corn can be raised in most regions of 
the South as profitably as in the North. Indeed the long 
growing season makes it possible to produce a much more 
prolific variety of corn than is possible in northern states. 
Under right cultural conditions much of the land now used 
for growing cotton can be more profitably employed in the 
raising of corn. It is evident that this will give an oppor- 
tunity for rotation and thereby secure all its advantages. 
Oats can also be grown in most regions of the South and 
prove almost as profitable as corn. Wheat may also find a 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 153 

larger place in southern agriculture, especially when the 
right variety for this region can be found. 

Vegetable raising. — The South is the great vegetable 
region of the United States and can more profitably produce 
most varieties than can any other section. Potatoes can be 
grown to good advantage in many of the states. Cabbages, 




Field of cow-reas ready to plow uiidur a:> greeu manure. 

tomatoes, melons, sweet potatoes, onions, celery, and nearly 
every other garden vegetable will thrive in most southern 
states and will, on good soil, produce two or even three 
crops a year. 

Many southern gardeners and truck raisers are now 
finding in the North a profitable winter and early spring 
market for their vegetables.. Improved shipping facilities 
and the increasing public demand for fresh vegetables and 
fruit all the year around open up a new opportunity for 



154 AGRICULTURE AND 

southern farmers. Many of the winter vegetables now 
raised under glass in northern regions can be more econom- 
ically grown in the South and distributed to northern mar- 
kets. There is no reason why southern-raised produce 
should not find favor in the North, at least during a con- 
siderable portion of the year. 

While certain of the forage crops most successful in the 
North are not adapted to the South, there is a wide range 
both of grasses and legumes suited to southern conditions. 
Alfalfa, Johnson grass, cow-peas, soy-beans, Bermuda grass, 
lespedeza and the vetches are freely grown in their respec- 
tive regions. Agricultural scientists from the United States 
Department of Agriculture and the state agricultural col- 
leges are busy in experimenting upon suitable forage crops 
for the South and demonstrating their value. It is not 
too much to expect that this region will soon have available 
at least as wide a range of profitable grasses and legumes 
as the North. 

Animals Adapted to Southern Farming 

Cattle. — Cattle can be more cheaply and profitably 
produced in the South than in any other part of the country. 
This is because of the mild climate making it possible to 
use pastures for the greater part of the feed, and also 
because of the absence of the long period of cold which not 
only requires more expensive feeding but reduces the 
amount of beef or milk. Both dairy and beef cattle should 
be grown more extensively through the southern states than 
is now the case. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



155 



Of? s 

S 5- 



w 



o 

09 




156 AGRICULTURE AND 

Hogs in the South. — Southern farmers have not yet 
entered very largely upon the raising of hogs, though they 
can probably be produced fully as cheaply in the South as 
the North. The southern people consume more meat per 
capita than the people of any other section. Millions of 
pounds of fresh meats are annually shipped to southern 
markets from northern and western farms. This means a 
double loss to the South, hence the importance of a more 
general study of the swine industry. For money is paid 
out for what could well be raised at home, and a most profit- 
able industry is thus omitted from the farms. 

Horses and mules. — The same conditions that make 
it profitable to raise cattle and hogs in the South also' make 
profitable the production of horses and m.ules. Pastures 
are available almost the entire year and crops of forage can 
be raised following grain or cotton crops, so that the income 
from horses or mules can, on many farms, be made almost 
clear profit. 

Poultry. — Probably no more important and profit- 
able extension of farm products in the South can be made 
than through the raising of more poultry. The feed re- 
quired can be grown very cheaply, while the shelter may 
also be inexpensive. Southern farmers could add many 
millions of dollars to the income of their farms every year 
by raising more chickens, as well as turkeys, ducks, geese 
and squabs. 

Soil Management in the South 

The management of the soil in the southern states needs 
careful study with reference to the long growing season. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 157 

the open winters, lack of winter rest periods, and the thin 
and rather exhausted condition of a great deal of southern 
soil. 

There are two important methods of fertilizing the soil. 
First, and most important, is to enrich it by deep tillage, 
the growing of legumes, following a carefully planned sys- 
tem of crop rotation, and the adding of natural barnyard 
manures. Second, these methods should be supplemented 
by adding commercial fertilizers such as experience and 
experimental investigation prove practical. Owing to the 
impoverished condition of much of the soil resulting from 
single cropping, commercial fertilizers will need to be freely 
used in many southern regions. Local needs and conditions 
must always govern in the selection and application of the 
fertilizer, and the help of scientists from the state agricul- 
tural college or the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture should be freely used. 

Fall plowing. — Alost of the southern land should be 
given fall plowing from eight to fourteen inches in depth. 
This will enable the soil to "breathe," taking the place of 
the freezing of the soil in the North. It also permits the 
seed bed to absorb the rains of the fall and winter and 
conserve them for the next season's crop. On deep fall- 
plowed land southern crops flourish in dry winters, because 
the plants are strong and have great feeding areas for the 
root system. They also do better on deep-plowed soil dur- 
ing the rainy winters because of improved drainage. Fall 
plowing prevents washing and leaching of the soils during 



158 



AGRICULTURE AND 




A stalk of prolific corn well adapted to southern agriculture. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 159 

the winter, and lessens the burden of work during the rush 
of spring farming. 

Winter cover crops. — In the southern states the 
winter cover crop is one of the important factors in good 
farm management. This is because the soil needs to be 
covered to protect it from the winds of the winter months 
and to save it from washing and leaching. The cover crop 
also furnishes forage for stock. In the spring of the year 
the forage crop can be plowed under to fertilize the soil. 
Soy-beans, cow-peas, the vetches, Japan clover and a num- 
ber of different grasses are being successfully used for win- 
ter cover crops. 

Terracing of hillsides. — Thin clay soils or sandy roll- 
ing land should be protected against washing rains. Ter- 
races are usually arranged so as to break the long slope of 
the hillside. All hillside land should be plowed deep and 
cultivation should all be done on a parallel with the base. 
A great deal of hillside land now being used for the pro- 
duction of grains might better be used for pasture, wood lot, 
and the growing of legumes. The roots of grasses and 
trees bind the soil together and prevent erosion. 

Rotation of crops needs to be carefully studied and ap- 
plied in southern agriculture. Haphazard planning must 
give way to a scientific mode of procedure that will make 
one crop prepare for the next, through renewing the soil 
and the elimination of insect, weed or fungous enemies of 
crops. Not to know how to work out a practical rotation 
indicates that one is uninformed as to his business; not to 



160 AGRICULTURE AND 

have the enterprise to carry out such a rotation indicates 

indolence or lack of initiative and business ability. 

The following "safety first" measures are recommended 

by Mr. Bradford Knapp, chief in charge of the Southern 

Extension Office, United States Department of Agriculture, 

for southern farms : 

1. Produce a home garden on the farm for every family, 
the year round, paying special attention to a plot of Irish or 




Oliver Thompson won a silver trophy on ten ears of corn at first 
National Club Show. 

sweet potatoes sufficient to supply the family with food of this 
character. Where feasible, have a patch of sorghurn or other 
cane to produce sirup for the family. 

2. Produce the corn necessary to support all of the people 
on the farm and the live stock, with absolute safety. 

3. Produce the necessary oats and other small grain to sup- 
plement the corn as food. Pay attention to winter grazing. 

4. Produce hay and forage from some forage crop, sufficient 
to supply all of the live stock on the farm. Use legumes such 
as clover, cow-peas, velvet beans, soy-beans, and alfalfa for the 
production of hay and to enrich the soil with nitrogen and 
humus. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 161 

5. Produce the meat necessary to supply the people, through 
increased attention to poultry and hogs, especially. Plan to in- 
crease gradually the number of cattle and other live stock, so 
as to have a sufficient number to consume the waste products 
of the farm and make the waste lands productive. 

6. After all of these things have been amply provided for, 
produce cotton for the market. 



162 



AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER VIII 

AGRICULTURE IN WESTERN STATES 

Western Fanning Conditions 

AN almost infinite variety of climatic conditions abounds 
Lin the western states. From the Canadian line on 
the north to the Mexican boundary on the south are to be 




"liouiul-up" from arid and semi-arid lands of New Mexico. 

found nearly every range of plant life from subarctic to 
subtropical. Here also exist many types of soils from the 
thin, gravelly or volcanic ash covering the mountain ranges 
to the richest silt of river valleys. The rainfall varies so 
greatly that while it is possible to farm in many regions 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



163 



under normal humid conditions, either irrigation or dry- 
farming methods must be employed in other places to se- 
cure and maintain suflicient moisture. Added to these 
conditions are great differences in altitude, so that all 
ranges of climate from arctic to warm temperature may be 
found in traveling a few miles from mountain slope to 
valley. Great ranges of slopes subjected to north or south. 




Western crops are varied and of excellent quality. 

east or west exposures also affect both climate and crop 
conditions. 

Wide range of crops and animals. — Almost every 
crop known to man will thrive in some parts of the great 
West. Here we find the richest yields of the cereals, the 
most abundant forage crops, potatoes, sugar beets, sorghum, 
vegetables, and a wider variety of fruits than is grown In 
any other country in the world. 



164 AGRICULTURE AND 

Farm animals thrive throughout the West and on the 
Great Plains in no less variety. This region was the orig- 
inal home of great herds of cattle, horses and buffalo, 
which ranged the endless prairies and mountain slopes. 
For many years the eastern markets secured a large por- 
tion of their beef and many of their horses from range- 
fed stock. These immense ranges are now being cut up 
into smaller farms, put under tillage, and farm stock kept 
under more domestic conditions. 

Soil management in the West. — So great is the vari- 
ety of climate, soil and moisture in the West that it is im- 
possible to treat all the conditions fully in any one book. 
Only the more general and fundamental principles can be 
stated. The local conditions will require study for each 
particular crop and region. 

For convenience in the study of western agriculture we 
may divide farm practise into three classes: (1) farming 
under humid conditions, (2) under irrigation, and (3) 
under dry-farming conditions. Farm practise under hu- 
mid conditions in the West should not differ sufficiently in 
method from good farm practise elsewhere to require 
separate treatment. Farming under arid or semi-arid 
conditions, however, requires special methods and very 
careful management. This phase of agriculture is so 
important in the West that the present chapter will be given 
principally to its discussion. Hundreds of thousands of 
acres are now being farmed and managed as dry-farming 
land, while millions of acres are available for similar pur- 
poses just as soon as good farming methods are employed, 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



165 



suitable crops adapted, and good business methods adopted 
and applied to the new conditions. 

Dry-Farming 

By dry- farming is meant the management and carrying 
on of agriculture, such as the production of field crops. 




;i iii]i 11 vcr at work in the vast fields of the Northwest. 

vegetables and fruit, and the raising of stock, in regions 
where the rainfall is not sufficiently heavy for successful 
plant growth and crop production under the common meth- 
ods of farming — especially the careless methods followed 
in some sections of our country where rainfall and soil 
conditions are more encouraging for profitable crop pro- 
duction. 



166 AGRICULTURE AND 

The use of terms.— Territory that has an annual 
rahifall of above thirty inches is called humid and will do 
well under ordinary agricultural practises. Regions that re- 
ceive less than ten inches of rainfall annually are called arid, 
and can not be successfully farmed by the methods now 
practised in the central and eastern states without irriga- 
tion. Regions that receive from ten to twenty inches an- 
nually are called semi-arid, and those that receive from 
twenty to thirty inches, sub-humid. By the best methods 
now known to dry-farming practise, most semi-arid and 
sub-humid land may be successfully and profitably farmed. 

A surprisingly large proportion of the land surface of 
the earth is either arid, semi-arid, or sub-humid. The fol- 
lowing table gives the proportions of the earth's surface re- 
ceiving varying amounts of precipitation: (Widtsoe, Dry 
Farming.) 

Annual Precipitation Earth's Surface 

Under 10 inches 25 per cent. 

From 10 to 20 inches 30 per cent. 

From 20 to 40 inches 20 per cent. 

From 40 to 60 inches 11 per cent. 

From 60 to 80 inches 9 per cent. 

From 80 to 120 inches 4 per cent. 

From 120 to 160 inches 0.5 per cent. 

Above 160 inches 0.5 per cent. 

100.0 per cent. 

It is seen from this table that the greater portion of- 
the land surface of the earth receives less than thirty inches 
of precipitation annually, and must therefore be reclaimed 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 167 

by the best known dry-farming method If at all. What a 
gigantic problem for scientific agriculture! 

Dry-farm areas of the United States. — Almost three- 
fifths of the area of the United States receive less than 
thirty inches of rainfall annually, and more than one-half 
receives less than twenty inches. All of this great region is 
therefore dependent on either dry-farming or irrigation for 
its agricultural success. 




Typical sceue iu the Suutliwest, sliowing sage-brush in tlie 
foregroimd. 

Eighteen states, most of them of large area, comprise 
this territory. For convenience in study they may be 
classed in groups as follows : 

Arid to semi-arid group: Arizona, California, Colora- 
do, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, and part of New 
Mexico. 

Semi-arid to sub-humid group: Montana, western part 
of Nebraska, New ]\Iexico, North Dakota, Oregon and 
Washington. 



168 AGRICULTURE AND 

Sub-humid to huinid group : western half of Nebraska, 
and sections of Minnesota, Oklahoma, Texas and Kansas.* 

Dry-Farming Practise 

The careless and shiftless methods employed in some 
humid regions will not return a profit to the operator from 
his dry-farm. The adoption of the best known methods of 
managing the soil, planting, cultivating and determining the 
crops to be produced are required. The dry-farmer should 
be thoroughly trained if he would succeed. 

Principles involved. — The success of dry-farming de- 
pends on the use of methods that will eliminate unnecessary 
and unprofitable labor, store moisture in the soil, keep it 
there until needed by the growing crops, and then release it 
to the roots of the plants. It is evident first of all that the 
soil must be of such nature as will allow it to retain water. 
Hence a gravelly soil is not well adapted to dry-farming, 
while a clay loam is. The cultivation must be directed 
chiefly toward preventing evaporation. The crops to be 
grown must be selected (1) for their adaptability to dry- 
farming conditions and (2) for their economy in the use 
of water during the growing period. 

Plowing. — Dry-farm land, many maintain, should as a 

Note: Send to the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C, and ask for Farmers' Bulletin en- 
titled "The Effects of Cultural Methods of Crop Production 
in the Great Plains" written by E. C. Chilcott, Agriculturist in 
Charge of Dry Land Agriculture, J. S. Cole, Assistant, and 
W. W. Burr, Assistant. This bulletin contains the results of 
a number of years' experimenting in cultural methods at sev- 
eral of the dry-land farming stations. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



169 



rule be plowed early in the fall, and to a depth of eight to 
ten inches. In case the subsoil is lacking in plant food the 
ground should be plowed more shallow at first, then a 
little deeper each year until a depth suitable to the locality 
is reached. Some consider fall plowing to be important as 
it allows the soil more readily to take in the winter moisture 




Horse power in the wheat-fields of the Northwest. 



and permits winter weathering, which improves the physical 
condition of the soil. There is also considerable evidence 
as to the necessity of deep plowing when we consult the 
results of continued experiments of the experiment stations 
of the Great Plains. 



170 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMINCx BUSINESS 171 

Providing the dust mulch. — Dry-farming requires, 
on the whole, more thorough and frequent cultivation than 
humid farming. Land that is soon to be planted to crops 
should be disked and harrowed immediately after the plow- 
ing. This tends to produce a loose soil mulch and will do 
much to prevent evaporation. Fall plowed land that is to lie 
fallow through the winter should be left in a rough condi- 
tion and without cultivation, as this will favor the taking in 
of winter rains or snow. H the winters are dry the ground 
should be well pulverized after the plowing. Disking 
should be started as early in the spring as possible and fol- 
lowed by harrowing. 

Crop cultivation. — As soon as the crops are planted 
harrowing should be started, and continued as long as pos- 
sible without injuring the crop. Every rain that falls is 
so much treasure added to the soil. After each rain, there- 
fore, the ground should be cultivated as soon as possible 
in order to break the crust, establish a new mulch and so 
prevent evaporation. All crops should be cultivated as far 
into the season as possible. Weeds must be kept down at 
any cost, for they both hinder the growth of the crop and 
rob the soil of water which belongs to the cultivated plants. 

As soon as the crop is removed the ground should be 
plowed, disked and harrowed. The farmer who is not 
willing to follow the intensive tillage and careful man- 
agement required for dry-farming conditions ought not to 
engage in this type of agriculture. 

Summer fallowing. — In a large part of the semi-arid 
region it is found necessary to store up the moisture of two 



172 AGRICULTURE AND 

seasons in order to produce a single crop successfully. This 
is accomplished by what is known as summer falloiving. 
The process consists of plowing the ground as if for 
immediate planting, and then keeping it well cultivated 
without a crop during the season, thus conserving most of 
the moisture that falls. 

Fallowing is usually practised every second year in re- 
gions having less than fifteen inches of rainfall. Where 
the rainfall is from fifteen to twenty inches the fallowing 
may be limited to every third or even every fourth year. 
The fallowed soil should be kept wholly free from weeds 
as they use up moisture, encourage insects and make the 
ground foul. In various regions of the Great Plains in- 
creased frequency of cultivation has been found to take 
in some degree the place of fallowing. Wherever this 
system can be successfully used it should, of course, be 
adopted, as it saves the loss from idle land during the fal- 
lowing period. Fallow fields also often lose fertility through 
the blowing of loose soil in high winds. 

Management of the Dry-Farm 

Dry-farm crops. — A great degree of the success of 
dry-farming depends on the selection of crops that are 
capable of growing with a minimum supply of moisture. 
While many of the crops grown under humid conditions 
can be successfully produced by dry-farming methods, yet 
certain varieties are better adapted to resist drought than 
others and should therefore be used. 

A second factor to be taken into account is that plants 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 173 

have the power of adapthig themselves to the conditions 
under which they grow. Varieties that have become accus- 
tomed to dry-farming regions and methods of cultivation 
should be selected. This also suggests that home grown 
seed should generally be used rather than seed brought 
from humid territory. 

Wheat as a dry-farm crop. — AVheat is at present the 
most important dry-farm crop, and will probably retain 
this preeminence. Experimentation is still going on to de- 
termine the best varieties for dry-farming conditions. 
Among the hard spring wheats, Common or Durum is at 
present regarded the best, while among the winter wheats 
the semi-hard and the soft wheats take the lead. 

Other grains. — Oats, especially such varieties as 
Sixty-day, Kherson, Burt and Szvedish Select, are a profit- 
able dry-farm crop. Barley, rye and emmer are also suc- 
cessful cereals for dry-farming regions. Corn can be 
profitably grown under semi-arid conditions if proper 
varieties are selected, as can the sorghums, feterita and mil- 
let. 

Alfalfa and other legumes. — On account of its deep 
rooting system alfalfa can be made a successful forage crop 
where the rainfall is as much as twelve to fifteen inches. 
Field peas, beans and other legumes are also adapted to 
dry-farming. 

Potatoes. — Potatoes are one of the most promising 
of dry-farming crops. They can be profitably raised with 
a rainfall of fifteen inches. The following- varieties have 



174 



AGRICULTURE AND 



been recommended as dry-farm varieties : Ohio, Mammoth, 
Pearl, Rural Nezv Yorker and Bitrhank. 

Conserving soil fertility. — Dry-farming areas possess 
soil of unusual fertility. Nor does the fertility exhaust as 
fast as under humid conditions. Dry-farms in many sec- 
tions that have been continuously cropped for many years 
show but little loss of fertility or decrease in the yield of 




Cultivating a young oi'augo gruvc i>j cuusurw nmislurL'. 

crops. Yet this fertility will finally be exhausted if care 
is not used to conserve or replace it. 

Intelligent dry-farming will therefore plan from the 
first to maintain fertility. The farms hould be stocked and 
the manure returned to the soil. Straw left from the 
header, and stubble, should be plowed under. Legumes 
should be grown to aid in maintaining the supply of nitro- 
gen. A careful system of rotation of crops should be 
adopted and carefully followed. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 175 

Dry-farm machinery. — Dry-farming usually employs 
a large acreage of tilled land. It also demands frequent 
and thorough cultivation. These facts suggest the need 
of plenty of good machinery, adapted to the work re- 
quired. Plowing is often done by the gang-plow drawn by a 
steam or gasoline tractor. Grain is cut by a combination 
header and thrasher. Large disks, harrows and drills are 
used. The intelligent dry-farmer will not so much seek to 
economize on necessary machinery, as to save by giving 
it the required care for its up-keep. 

Water for the home. — The dry-land farmer's home 
should be provided with an abundance of clean pure wa- 
ter. The barns and the stock should have plenty of water, 
and a supply is needed for the irrigation of the vegetable 
garden, shade trees and fruit. The most progressive dry- 
land farmers provide a reservoir which is continually kept 
full of water pumped by a windmill, gasoline engine, or 
other power. If this reservoir is elevated it may easily pro- 
vide for a running system of water, thus supplying the 
home, its kitchen and bathroom, with some of the modern 
conveniences not otherwise available. 



176 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER IX 
FARMING UNDER IRRIGATION 

A BOUT 300,000,000 acres In the United States of other- 
wise tillable land have been unproductive because of 
lack of moisture. This area, which is approximately as 
large as Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, Minnesota, 
Wisconsin and Michigan, comprises what is known as the 
arid and semi-arid region of the United States. The soil in 
most cases contains abundant plant food and has been found 
highly productive when the necessary amount of moisture 
is supplied. Lluch of the arid West formerly called the 
"Great American Desert" can be transformed into a veri- 
table garden of America by proper irrigation and manage- 
ment. 

This territory extends from the Canadian boundary to 
the Gulf of Mexico and includes large tracts of practically 
all of the states in the West, such as Washington, IMontana, 
North Dakota, South Dakota, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, 
Colorado, Oregon, Nevada, California, New IMexIco, Ari- 
zona, Texas, Oklahoma, western Kansas and Nebraska, as 
well as a part of Florida. 

Causes of Aridity 

There are three chief reasons why much of the western 
dry territory is deprived of the normal rainfall. The first 
is that the Rocky Mountains rob the ocean breezes of their 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 177 

moistures before they have reached the tillable lands. The 
second is the altitude of a great portion of this territory; 
millions of acres are at an altitude which makes the pro- 
duction of much rain impossible. The third is the lack of 
vegetation and forests, which encourages the evaporation of 
moisture and its loss after rains by rapid surface drainage. 

Seasonal distribution of rainfall. — In considerable 
portions of the arid territory there is sufficient rainfall 
within a year's time to produce crops. Yet irrigation is 
necessary because the distribution of the moisture is not 
seasonable, but irregular or at the wrong time. In most 
cases the rains come during the time of the year when the 
crops are not in the ground. In some parts of Florida 
where the annual rainfall is from sixty to seventy Inches it 
is impossible to grow a crop without irrigation because the 
precipitation comes during the winter months. 

Regions of late summer droughts. — In the central 
west and eastern states there is considerable territory that 
suflfers more or less during the months of July and Au- 
gust, for want of sufficient rainfall to set and mature the 
grain, fruit or trucking crops. In a very large number 
of cases irrigation could be supplied without great expense 
to protect the farmer, fruit grower or truck gardener 
against failures of crop and so prove highly profitable. 

Even in the fruit sections of the Allegheny and Blue 
Ridge Mountains where irrigation has not been seriously 
considered, many farmers would profit greatly by planning 
systems of irrigation and by so doing extend the growing 
season. WHiere now they are producing but one crop in 



178 AGRICULTURE AND 

trucking, with the aid of irrigation and a carefully planned 
system of rotation, it would be possible to produce two and 
in some cases three crops. Much of this land could be fed 
from the mountain streams and rivers with but little cost. 

Reclamation of Arid and Semi-arid Land 

By reclaimed land we mean land that otherwise would 
be unproductive and of little or no value because of its arid 
or semi-arid condition. This land is reclaimed by some 
system of irrigation making it possible for the farmer to 
supply water in sufficient quantities and at the proper time. 
The United States government, through its reclamation 
service, has reclaimed millions of acres of land in the West 
which formerly was a bleak desert, or at best covered with 
sage-brush, mesquit and cacti, and populated by prairie- 
dogs and rattle snakes. In this region are now beautiful 
and thriving citrus orchards, grain and alfalfa fields, and a 
great variety of truck crops. Some of the most beautiful 
farming sections of the West can be found on these re- 
claimed lands and on what is known as territory under 
irrigation. IMillions of dollars are being spent annually, 
not only by the federal government, but also by the states 
and by private reclamation companies to reclaim this land. 

Practise of irrigation not new. — While irrigation has 
only recently been developed into an important agricultural 
science or received the attention of statesmen and men of 
affairs, it is by no means a modern invention. It was very 
commonly practised in Egypt, India, Spain, Afexico and 
Peru thousands of years ago. When the Spaniards first came 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



179 



to America they found irrigation fairly well developed in 
both Mexico and Peru. The Indians were the first to irri- 
gate land in the United States and in old Mexico. Even at 
the present time there can be found a number of Indian 
tribes practising the same arts of irrigation followed by 




Regulating gates and inverted siphon, Chestnut Valley, Mis- 
souri Eiver, Montana. 

their forefathers hundreds of years ago. In many of the 
western arid plains from which the Indians have long since 
been driven there are still remaining signs of their irrigation 
systems. The first white people in America to develop and 
organize definite systems of irrigation were the Mormons, 
who located in the Salt River Valley of Utah. 

Sources of water supply. — Water for irrigation pur- 
poses is secured from a variety of sources, such as artesian 



180 AGRICULTURE AND 

wells, canals, reservoirs, streams, lakes, and sometimes 
from the regular wells from which the water is pumped 
by windmills, electricity, steam or other power. 

Systems of Irrigation 

There are now in use in various sections of the coun- 
try three different systems of irrigation. These are known 
as the surface, suh-siirface and overhead systems. 

Surface irrigation. — This Is the system in most com- 
mon use, not because it is always the most satisfactory and 
efficient, but because it can be installed with the least labor 
and expense. Where water Is scarce, or the rental is high, 
surface irrigation Is wasteful, since a large amount of wa- 
ter is lost by evaporation and by running off into fields, 
lowlands or streams where It is not needed. And In irri- 
gation territory water has a direct money value and should 
be handled as economically as possible. 

Application of water in surface irrigation. — The 
method to be followed In surface irrigation depends on the 
source of water supply, the physical condition of the soil, 
the topography of the field, and the kind of farming to 
be undertaken. Two principal methods of applying the 
water are (1) by flooding, and (2) by the use of furrow^ 
ing, or corrugation, of the field. 

When flooding Is used, the water is spread from the 
source of supply over the entire field at regular or neces- 
sary intervals. It seeps Into the soil and around the root 
systems of the plants from every point of the surface. 
When furrowing Is employed the water Is turned into the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS ISl 




» it 



Flooding from cement ditches. 




Method of lunldug small irrigation ditches. 



182 



AGRICULTURE AND 



furrows from the head lateral ditches. From the furrows 
it seeps through the soil to the roots of the plants. It is 
evident that for the successful use of either of these meth- 
ods the fields must be relatively level and only a trifle slop- 
ing. 

Saving the water. — The only methods known to pre- 
vent lavish waste of water through surface irrigation are 




"Cbecking back" to avoid, waste of irrigation water, California. 



(1) by economy in the application of water, and (2) by 
keeping a light surface mulch through frequent and shallow 
cultivation. This system will produce a greater amount of 
plant products at less water cost. For most of the fruit, 
trucking and grain crops the furrow, or corrugation, method 
is conceded to be more practical and economical than flood- 
ing. 

Sub-surface irrigation. — Under favorable conditions 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 183 

sub-surface irrigation proves most satisfactory, chiefly be- 
cause there is little or no waste of water, and because the 
supply can be more easily controlled. 

In this system the water is applied by means of pipes 
placed beneath the surface. The pipes are full of small 
holes through which the water enters the soil. A serious 
objection to this method is that clay soil and small plant 
roots are likely to clog up the holes. Hence the sub-surface 
pipes are adapted only to light open soils. Another sub- 
surface method is by a system of tile or drainage pipes from 
which the water is forced up through perpendicular pipe 
outlets or holes. 

A third method of sub-surface watering is employed 
where the land has a natural slope and a clay subsoil of 
hardpan. The water is applied by the head ditch and al- 
lowed to seep down through the soil to the hardpan. It 
then rises to the surface by soil capillarity, where it is avail- 
able for the use of the plants. This method is practical 
only in a few localities where the source of water supply 
and the physical conditions of the field are adapted to its 
use. 

Overhead irrigation. — Overhead irrigation is accom- 
plished by a system of overhead piping so placed that wa- 
ter can be applied to an entire field or garden at one time 
or by a shifting or portable piping arrangement. The 
pipes are perforated with many small holes through 
which are forced fine streams or a spray of water. This 
method is very efiPective, but its expense limits its useful- 
ness principally to gardening and trucking. Not only is 



184 



AGRICULTURE AND 




a 

<D 
+-> 
Oi 

bo 

g 

is* 



fa 
o 






THE FARMING BUSINESS 185 

the cost prohibitive for large fields, but the piping is in the 
way for cultivation when using horses and machinery. 

Determining the method of irrigation. — What method 
of irrigation is best must be decided by certain important 
factors. Among these are (1) the available water sup- 
ply, and its expense, (2) the location and level of the water 
table, (3) the nature of the soil, (4) the variety of crops 
to be irrigated, (5) the size of the field. Irrigating small 
grain, forage crops, alfalfa, etc., is usually best accom- 
plished by the surface corrugated methods, though flood- 
ing may prove satisfactory if the land is well drained. 
Orchard and trucking crops are most economically served 
by the furrow method. 

Crop Management tinder Irrigation 

The application of water. — Water is usually applied 
as needed from seed time to harvest in from two to six 
applications. A few irrigations from June to September 
as a rule insure better results than many. Too much water 
is the cause of many irrigation difficulties and is quite as 
harmful to the crops as not enough. The time of appli- 
cation is more important than the quantity of water applied. 

Care of the crop. — The general management of crops 
under irrigation, as to planting, tillage and harvesting, is 
very little different from the management of the same 
crops under humid conditions, except in three particulars. 
First, all work must protect the irrigation system, such as 
ditches, furrows and piping, being careful not to damage 
them in cultivating the crop. Second, the tillage must be 



186 



AGRICULTURE AND 




« 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 187 

performed with a definite view to conserving the moisture 
in all possible ways. Third, the management of the farm 
must be more carefully planned as the cost of production is 
greater on irrigated land than on humid land, and a mate- 




Shoshoue project, Wyoming. 

rial increase of production per acre must result if a sub- 
stantial profit is to be assured. 

Rotation. — The desire for immediate cash returns 
makes the tendency to single cropping as pronounced on 



188 AGRICULTURE AND 

irrigated projects as in the central states or the cotton ter- 
ritory. Yet the fact that the land is new makes diversi- 
fication and a carefully planned system of rotation even 
more desirable than in most other regions. For not a 
little of the nev^ land which is being brought under irriga- 
tion is almost entirely devoid of organic matter. This is 
due to the fact that for many years it has been entirely 
without vegetation. For this reason and for the purpose of 
keeping up the natural fertility and the enriching of the 
soil, it is important to plan a practical system of crop rota- 
tion from the start. 

Every irrigation farmer should keep in close touch with 
the state college of agriculture and state experiment sta- 
tion of his state by visiting the Institution and reading its 
bulletins. In this way he can secure guidance and infor- 
mation from experts who have been provided with both 
time and money to investigate and experiment in order to 
discover the safest and best methods for the farmer. 

Dangers from Over-irrigation 

The dangers from over-irrigation need to be guarded 
against as carefully as those of shortage of moisture. The 
Utah Agricultural College and the Utah Conservation Com- 
mission have jointly issued the following suggestions to irri- 
gation farmers : 

OVER-IRRIGATION IS A MENACE TO UTAH, 
BECAUSE 

1. Smaller crop yields are obtained for each unit of 
water used. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 189 

2. More plant food is taken up by the plant for each 
pound of crop. 

3. The quality of the crops is greatly reduced, 

4. Straw is produced at the expense of grain. 

5. Plant food is washed out of the soil. 

6. Lower-lying lands become water-logged. 

7. Other dry lands are cheated of irrigation water. 

8. The extension of the irrigated area is hindered. 

9. A wholesome community spirit is lowered wherever 
■water is wastefuUy used. 

The same authorities have set forth the following ir- 
rigation rules, which are worth the attention of all who 
are interested in the ultimate success of all irrigation. 

1. Store the rainfall in the soil. — Deep thorough plowing 
enables the soil to absorb and retain most of the rain and 
snow water. The more rainfall is stored in the soil the 
less irrigation water will be needed. 

2. Use the spring and fall water. — Where the winters are 
dry, fall irrigation or early spring irrigation will reduce the 
irrigation water needed during the growing season. 

3. Cultivate frequently and thoroughly. — Water is easily lost 
from soils by evaporation. The soil should be thoroughly cul- 
tivated early in the spring, as soon as possible after irrigation, 
and usually once or more between irrigations. Thorough cul- 
tivation will reduce the water needed in irrigation. 

4. Keep the soil fertile. — The more fertile a soil is, the less 
water is needed to produce a pound or ton of the crop. Plow 
deeply, cultivate thoroughly, use barnyard manure, and less 
irrigation water will be needed. 

5. Plant in well-moistened soil. — Well-moistened soil at 
planting time permits better root development, and delays the 
itime of the first irrigation, and thus saves irrigation water 
'during the summer. If rains and snow do not moisten soils 
sufficiently for planting, irrigate in fall, or in early spring, be- 
fore planting. 

6. Don't irrigate too early. — By postponing as long as pos- 
sible the first irrigation after planting, a better root develop- 



190 AGRICULTURE AND 

ment is secured and less irrigation water is needed to pro- 
duce the crop. 

7. Irrigate by the correct method. — Where water is plenti- 
ful, the flooding method may be used; where water is scarce, 
the furrow method only should be employed. Lead the waste 
water from the furrows to other fields. 

8. Irrigate at the proper time. — Withhold water until the 
crop is in real need. When irrigating, apply enough water to 
supply the crop for at least ten days. Irrigate thoroughly, when 
potatoes are in bloom; corn in tassel or silk; lucerne just be- 
ginning to bud, and grains forming seed. 

9. Use water in moderation. — The acre yield of a crop in- 
creases as more water is used, up to a certain limit, beyond 
which more water causes a decrease in the yield. 

10. Spread the water over larger areas. — The yield of crop 
per unit of water always becomes smaller as more water is 
added. The less water is used in irrigation, the more crop is 
obtained for the water used. In Utah, land is plentiful, water is 
scarce; it is more important to get a large crop for each 
acre-foot of water than for each acre of land. 

11. Kill the weeds. — Weeds use up as much water as do 
many profitable crops. It costs usually one ton of water to pro- 
duce one pound of weeds. Killing the weeds will leave more 
water for our crops. 

12. Repair the leaky ditches. — Tremendous quantities of 
water seep from most of our canals and ditches. Stop the 
leaky places! It will often pay to cement the whole canal. 

13. Measure the water. — Land is measured carefully, but 
water, more valuable than land, is seldom measured. Great 
progress will be made by Utah as soon as farmers faithfully 
measure and keep an account of the water used on the land. 
This is one of Utah's greatest irrigation needs. The Cippoletti 
Weir may be used by any farmer for the measurement of water. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 191 



CHAPTER X 
COTTON 

COTTON is one of the oldest of the fabric-producing 
plants. Its origin dates back so far that it is not 
known where the plant originated, but it is thought to have 
been a native of India. Certain it is that Columbus found 
cotton growing here when he came to America, Cotton 
has, from the beginning of our history, been one of the 
chief agricultural products and ranks third in value of all 
farm crops after the cereals and the forage crops in the 
United States. In a number of the southern states it out- 
ranks all other crops combined, both in acreage and value. 
The annual cotton crop is worth over three-fourths of a 
billion dollars. 

The cotton plant is raised chiefly for its fiber, though 
other parts of the plant are also useful. The seed furnishes 
valuable oils for lighting, cooking and other purposes. 
The hulls and seed meal and flour left from the manufacture 
of the oils are used for bread for human food, stock feed- 
ing and fertilizers. The root ^arks are sometimes used for 
medicine while the stalk fiber is employed for the manufac- 
ture of coarse cloth bags. Some paper manufacturers are 
also using the stalk. 



192 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 193 

The Cotton Region 

Most of our cotton is raised in the following twelve 
southern states, which are named in the order of the amount 
of cotton they produce: Texas, Georgia, South Carolina, 
Mississippi, Alabama, North Carolina, Arkansas, Louisiana, 
Tennessee, Florida, Oklahoma, IMissouri. Cotton is also 
profitably raised in southern Virginia and in parts of Ken- 
tucky. It has recently been introduced with success in 
Arizona, southern Utah, New IMexico, and in southern 
California, where the long staple varieties are especially 
successful. 

Proportion of land in cotton. — Mississippi, Texas, Ala- 
bama, Georgia and South Carolina devote approximately 
one-half of their tilled land to the raising of cotton, the 
remainder of the list, from twelve to about twenty-five 
per cent. The tendency at present is to diversify the 
farming in the cotton states, raising a smaller acreage of 
cotton, and adding corn, oats, legumes and other forage 
crops. With better methods of growing cotton, this can 
be done without reducing the amount of cotton produced. 

Varieties of cotton. — The two leading varieties of 
cotton are the Sea Island and the Upland. Sea Island cot- 
ton is grown over a small area located in the southern part 
of South Carolina, southeastern Georgia and northern 
Florida. Upland cotton occupies the greater part of the 
remainder of the cotton area. 

The United States produces the best grade of Sea 
Island cotton grown in the world. It is the long, silky 



194 AGRICULTURE AND 

fibers of the Sea Island variety that are used for spinning 
the finest fabrics, laces and threads. Sea Island cotton also 
possesses far greater strength and durability than other va- 
rieties and is used wherever wearing qualities are of para- 
mount importance. For example, it is this variety that is 
employed in the manufacture of mail bags and in the making 
of pneumatic tires, where strength and durability are put 
to the severest tests. 

Upland cotton, while never approximating Sea Island 
in length and fineness of fiber, is, nevertheless, produced in 
fine quality in various regions of the South. 

Grades of cotton. — For convenience in marketing, 
cotton is divided into grades and classes which are so 
standardized that quotations can be made for certain grades 
or standards without seeing the product. The official grades 
as prepared at the present time by the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture include the following: 

Above Middling. Below Middling. 

1. Middling Fair 5. Middling 

2. Strict Good Middling 6. Strict Low Middling 

3. Good Middling 7. Low Middling 

4. Strict Middling 8. Strict Good Ordinary 

9. Good Ordinary 

Samples have been prepared representing each of these 
grades, and are widely distributed throughout the cotton 
regions at the cost of making up the samples. It is well 
for every cotton grower to know the grades of cotton he is 
producing and its relation to markets, and it of course pays 
to produce as high a grade as possible. The principal points 
considered in deciding the grade of cotton are: 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 195 

(1) Foreign matter, such as leaves, dirt, sand, strings and 
the like, mixed in with the fiber. 

(2) Injured or gin-cut fiber, cut seed, or unripe fiber. 

(3) The color. 

(4) Length and quality of lint or fiber. 

Raising the Crop 

Soil requirements — Well-drained clay or sandy loam 
soil is considered best for cotton. As a rule, bottom lands 
are not well adapted to the growth of cotton, because most 
of the fertility of the soil goes into the production of stalk 
rather than bolls. There are two important reasons why 
cotton should be planted only on fertile soil, and given the 
best of cultivation: (1) A better quality of cotton and 
larger yields are produced; (2) an earlier crop is secured 
and the danger from the boll weevil and other insect ene- 
mies is greatly reduced. 

Preparation of the seed bed. — The ground in most 
parts of the South should be plowed deep for cotton. This 
brings to the surface new soil, and opens up deeper levels 
for the roots of the plants. Many successful cotton farm- 
ers plow not less than eight or ten inches deep, and then 
follow with a subsoiler that breaks the bottom of the fur- 
row open to an additional depth of four or more inches. It 
is usually advisable to plow the land in the fall, and then 
disk or harrow well just before the planting season. Cot- 
ton grows better on a well bedded soil than on newly pre- 
pared land. 

Applying fertilizers. — Cotton land should be rich in 
humus or vegetable matter. This keeps the soil from 



196 AGRICULTURE AND 

packing-, increases the capacity for water, and adds to the 
fertility. Barnyard manure should therefore be added 
whenever possible. Legumes should be grown, alternating 
with cotton, and an occasional crop of soy-beans, cow-peas 
or clover plowed under. 

Commercial fertilizers will pay on certain soils. It is 
well to secure the advice of an expert as to what fertilizing 
elements are most needed. Acid phosphate is commonly 
used to increase the yield and hasten maturity. Cottonseed- 
meal may be used especially to stimulate stalk growth. 

Planting. — Cotton should be planted as early as the 
season will permit. Not only will a better grade of cotton 
result, but the danger from the boll weevil will be greatly 
lessened, as the weevils do not become very numerous be- 
fore the latter part of July. In Texas the cotton Is plant- 
ed in March ; in North Carolina not until May. The plant 
requires about six months to mature, hence it is easy to 
see why the cotton territory is so limited. In some sec- 
tions it is considered good practise to plant the seed on 
ridges thrown up about four feet apart. On very dry soils 
the ground should be kept level. About four feet is the 
proper distance between rows, and the plants should be 
set from twelve to twenty inches apart in the row. About 
thirty pounds of good seed are required to the acre. 

New system of culture. — Recent experiments in the 
raising of cotton have developed a new system of cotton 
culture. By this system the cotton plants are at the be- 
ginning left closer in the row than is customary, and 
thinned at a later date than usual. The object in this 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



197 



system is to restrict the growth of vegetative branches, 
or those that result in foliage only, and thereby induce an 
earlier developing of the fruiting branches. The effect of 
this system is to secure an early short-seasoned crop, 
thereby defeating in some degree the ravages of the boll 
weevil and other cotton enemies, and at the same time 
getting the crop ready for the market at an earlier date. 




Field injured by cottou worm. (Insert) cotton worms. 

The spacing of the plants and the time at which thinning 
should take place will depend so much upon local conditions 
and the variety of cotton grown that no specific directions 
can be given. The principle involved, however, is clear, 
and every cotton grower should investigate the possibilities 
of the closer planting, later thinning system and apply the 
results to his own crop. It is thought that this system will 
do much to reduce the amount of damage occasioned by the 



198 AGRICULTURE AND 

weevil and would probably be justified from this standpoint 
alone. 

Cotton requires good cultivation to kill the weeds, keep 
the soil loose and preserve a dust mulch to conserve the 
moisture. Cultivation should begin with the harrow before 
the young plants come up. When the cotton is about five 
days old the cultivation should be repeated. Disk and 
shovel cultivators are suitable for the later cultivations. 
Deep plowing should be avoided later in the season, so that 
the roots may not be injured. 

Harvesting. — The greatest labor connected with cot- 
ton production is the picking of the crop. It is a very 
slow and costly operation and has been performed en- 
tirely by hand labor. The invention of the cotton gin by 
Eli Whitney for the ginning of the cotton or the removal 
of the seed from the lint was one of the greatest boons to 
cotton culture that has come to the South. After the 
cotton has been ginned it is made up into large bundles 
called bales, each weighing about five hundred pounds. 
These bales are shipped to the mills by train or boat, 
after which they are manufactured into thread and all 
kinds of cloth. 

Enemies of Cotton 

Cotton, like other farm crops, is subject to attack by 
various insects and diseases. 

The boll weevil. — The boll weevil is said to be the 
most harmful insect known to agriculture in this country. 
It came to the United States from Mexico about 1892, first 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



199 



td 




200 AGRICULTURE AND 

beginning its ravages in Texas. Since that time it has 
spread over most of the cotton area, and caused the loss 
of millions of dollars annually to cotton growers. 

Life history of the boll weevil. — In the spring and 
throughout the fruiting season eggs are laid in small holes 
made by the female in the cotton square or boll. In about 
three days the egg hatches into a grub, which at once 
begins feeding on the plant. In a little more than a week 
the grub passes into the pupa stage, which lasts from 
three to five days, when the second generation of adult, 
the beetle, is developed. It requires from two to three 
weeks for the weevil to develop from egg to adult, hence 
a number of generations are produced in a season. The 
offspring of a single pair in a season may exceed twelve 
million individuals. 

Fighting the boll weevil. — Since the weevil life is 
spent and damage done chiefly in the square or boll, meth- 
ods of poisoning and picking have not proved very satis- 
factory. The most important step in the destruction of 
the weevil is to kill as large a proportion of them by ex- 
posure during the winter months as possible. In order to 
do this the fields should be cleaned of all of the stalks and 
rubbish and the seed bed prepared in the early fall. Cot- 
ton stalks should be thoroughly uprooted and if possible 
plowed under just as soon as the crop is picked. Then 
the ground should be well dragged and packed close so as 
to shut all crevices through which the beetle might come 
to the surface. Rubbish left upon the ground during the 
winter months will be sure to furnish a safe hiding-place 
and protection for the weevil, hence should be burned. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



201 



r^w^-!-.^ 




THE BOLL WEEVIL AND ITS STAGES. 
Fig. 1, Adult boll weevil, viewed from above ; a, two teeth on fore 
feuiur; fig. 2, adult weevil, side view; fig, 3, egg of weevil; fig. 4, 
grub about two daj'S old; fig. 5, grub at entrance to second stage 
after shedding first skin, about three days old ; fig. 6, grub fully- 
grown, about ten daj's from egg; tig. 7, transformation or pupal 
stage, side view, snout, legs and wings forming ; fig. S, pupal stage, 
front view of fig. 7. Figs. 1, 2, 0, 7 and 8 enlarged about ten diam- 
eters; figs, o, 4 and 5 enlarged about twenty diameters. 



202 AGRICULTURE AND 

The next most important step is the planting of an early 
variety in order to get the crop well out of the way of the 
larger broods of weevils. Through a system of seed se- 
lection it is possible to develop a plant that is very strongly 
resistant to the attacks of the boll weevil. 

Since the weevils live mainly upon the cotton boll and 
the cotton plant, it is easy to understand why it is impor-. 
tant to rotate the crop. Cotton should not be grown on 
the same piece of ground in boll weevil territory a second 
year. This plan, if followed, is also bound to bring 
about the diversification of farming so greatly needed in 
the South. The weevils can not possibly live in the soil for 
more than twelve months without direct contact with a 
source of food supply, hence the effectiveness of a three-, 
four- and five-year rotation having the cotton-field for each 
successive year sufficiently separated so as not to make it 
easy for the weevil to pass from one field to the other. 
Cotton seed should be treated with carbon bisulphide in 
order to make sure that no weevils are carried into new 
soil. 

The cotton anthracnose or boll rot. — Next to the boll 
weevil, this is considered one of the destructive enemies to 
cotton production. It is usually referred to as boll rot and 
is a disease caused by fungous growth which attacks the 
seedlings, the stems and the boll pedicels. It causes the 
loss of many millions of dollars every year. It^ develops 
readily in hot muggy weather and where the planting has 
been close. The best way to prevent this disease is by 
careful seed selection. Healthy seed is very important and 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



203 




6 

g 

a 
a 



204 AGRICULTURE AND 

the systematic rotation of crops necessary as the disease 
spores will live upon dead bolls from year to year. It is 
also possible to develop through selection of seed from 
healthy stalks a plant quite resistant to the disease. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 205 



CHAPTER XI 
THE POTATO 

THE common white, or Irish, potato is grown in every 
state of the Union. It is a native of South America 
and was first brought to North America by the early Span- 
ish settlers. It has so far played its most important part in 
the farming of the northern states. While many of the 
southern states are admirably adapted to potato growing, it 
is only recently that southern farmers have begun to make 
the potato an important factor among their crops. Pota- 
toes are one of the chief vegetables in the world's food 
supply. The annual world-production of the Irish potato is 
about five billion bushels. Of this immense supply, the 
United States produces three hundred million bushels, or 
somewhat more than one-twentieth of the entire amount. 
Potatoes are one of the most profitable crops, especially for 
intensive agriculture, wherever chmate and soil conditions 
are favorable. 

The plant. — The potato plant varies from one and one- 
half to five feet in height, though it does not show this 
great a height owing to its spreading habits of growth. The 
terminal clusters of fiower bear seeds, from which new 
varieties are often developed. For practical purposes the 
plant is always reproduced from the tubers. 



206 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 207 

Though both plant and roots die upon the ripening of 
the seed and tubers, the potato is a perennial and the plant 
is reproduced by means of the tuber. Since the tubers are 
destroyed by freezing, they are harvested before frost. 
Potatoes are annuals in all regions where the soil freezes 
during the winter. 

Examining a tuber, which is the food part of the potato 
plant, one notes small indentations commonly called "eyes." 
These contain the buds from which the new plants are pro- 
duced. The end at which the eyes are thickest is called 
the seed end. Some varieties produce tubers that are more 
deeply indented at the eyes and more irregular in shape than 
others. The smoother and more uniform the tuber, other 
things being equal, the more valuable and marketable. 

Though there are hundreds of wild plants belonging to 
tlie same genus as potatoes, comparatively few of these are 
known as cultivated plants. Among the most closely related 
cultivated plants are the tomato and tobacco, which belong 
to the same family. 

Potatoes as a Farm Crop 

Potatoes are raised in every state, though the chief 
potato region consists of ten or fifteen northern states reach- 
ing from the Missouri River eastward to the Atlantic. More 
than three million acres are planted with potatoes in the 
United States each year. The annual crop of from three 
hundred to three hundred and fifty million bushels repre- 
sents nearly four bushels to every inhabitant. 

The yield. — Potatoes, like other crops, vary greatly 



208 AGRICULTURE AND 

in yield owing to differences in the fertility of the soil, and 
the care taken in raising the crop. The average for the 
United States during the last ten-year period has been about 
ninety-six bushels to the acre. It is somewhat humiliating 
to know, that, in spite of our improved machinery and 
scientific knowledge of the soil and plant diseases, we are 
now securing only about the same yield of potatoes that 
was produced at the close of the Civil War. Experts tell 
us that this yield can easily be doubled, with comparatively 
small expense and trouble. 

No farmer with good soil ought to be satisfied with a 
yield under two hundred bushels to the acre on average 
seasons. The state of Maine, which is one of the leading 
potato regions of the country, not infrequently averages 
considerably above this amount. The success of the Maine 
potato raisers is probably due more to the excellence of 
their cultural methods than to any superiority in the soil, 
climate, or variety of tubers grown. 

Raising the Crop 

The soil. — Potatoes thrive best in a rich sandy loam 
containing a good supply of humus. Hard stiff soils or 
heavy clay are not well adapted to potato raising. The best 
soil on the farm should be devoted to the potato field, both 
because potatoes demand a better soil than most other crops, 
and because the value of potatoes per acre is greater than 
almost any other field crop. 

Ground that has recently raised clover, alfalfa or some 
other legume is especially suited to potatoes. While barn- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



209 



yard manure will greatly increase the yield, it will also favor 
the ravages of scab and other potato diseases, and so lower 
the quality of the crop. It is usually a mistake to plant 
potatoes on a freshly manured field. If manure is used, 
it is better to follow a heavy manuring with a crop of 
corn, and then plant potatoes for the second year crop. 




An Iowa potato club boy and a part of bis crop. 

Green manuring, that is, the plowing under of green 
crops such as clover or alfalfa, will add greatly to the 
yield. If the sod is old, it is usually better to grow one 
crop of corn before potatoes are planted on the field. Com- 
mercial fertilizers can be used to advantage for potatoes on 
most soils. 

The seed bed. — Potatoes should have an especially 



210 AGRICULTURE AND 

well prepared seed bed. The plowing should be deeper than 
for most crops, shice the seed is planted deeper and loose 
soil must be had for the roots and tubers. In average soils 
the plow should be set to a depth of not less than eight 
inches. 

The seed bed must be well pulverized and thoroughly 
packed. Usually not less than four harrowings and disk- 
ings are required for the best results. Experiments have 
shown that the difference in yield caused by harrowing part 
of a field four times and the remainder of it but twice may 
be as much as twenty per cent, of the crop in favor of the 
better preparation. 

The planting. — Potatoes should be planted not less 
than four inches deep. If less than this depth it will not 
give room for the tubers to grow without protruding from 
the ground. This is sure to result in injury from sunburn. 
Most potato growers drill the seed, dropping single pieces 
of seed from twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. In 
some regions potatoes are planted in cross rows like corn, 
with three cuts of seed to the hill. 

The date for planting differs in various regions, but 
the greater part of the crop In the northern states is planted 
during the last half of Alay. From twelve to twenty bushels 
of seed are required for an acre, depending on how the 
tubers are cut for planting. Where crops of any consider- 
able size are raised, the dropping is usually done with a 
machine or planter, some makes of which are arranged to 
distribute commercial fertilizer at the same time. 

Where potatoes are not raised as a commercial crop, the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 211 

planting is ordinarily done by hand. There are two chief 
types of potato planters generally employed under commer- 
cial conditions. In the one type of planter, the seed pieces 
are picked up and distributed by small steel forks or pickers, 
and in the other type the pieces are caught in pockets on 
the revolving disk and delivered from this into the furrow. 
The usual potato planter is a two-horse machine. The first 
type of planter can be operated by one man. The disk ma- 
chine requires a second man to attend to the seed distribu- 
tion for the disk and insure a more perfect stand. Either 
type of machine wall plant about five acres a day. The ma- 
chines are equipped with an attachment for the distribution 
of commercial fertilizer. From one-half to three-quarters 
of a ton per acre can be profitably applied. By this system 
the fertilizer is distributed directly in the drills and not 
broadcast. 

Cultivating the crop. — Potatoes demand good cultiva- 
tion. Flarrowing should be done before the potatoes are 
up. From one to two harrowings may be given after the 
plants appear. Throughout the growing season a fine soil 
mulch should at all times be maintained by means of fre- 
quent cultivation. Especially after a rain should the soil 
crust be broken. The cultivation should be rather shallow, 
and potatoes should not be hilled up as is so frequently 
done. 

Harvesting the crop. — When the vines have died the 
potatoes have stopped growing and the crop is ready to 
harvest. In the case of small fields, potatoes are often har- 
vested by being plowed out with an ordinary plow, the 



212 AGRICULTURE AND 

tubers being picked up by hand, and the field afterward 
harrowed to uncover any that have been missed. 

In regions where potatoes are grown in large quanti- 
ties the digging is done with machines, several kinds of 
which are now on the market. The average machine will 
turn out about three acres in a day, and will require from 
five to ten pickers to keep up with it. 

Storing the crop.^ — In order to keep well, potatoes 
must be stored in a cool place. The house cellar is usu- 
ally too warm for them, and they also give out an un- 
pleasant odor that permeates the house. A common type 
of vegetable cellar to be found on many farms is built 
with concrete or stone walls, the excavation being made on 
a side hill. It is covered with a shingle roof, and has a 
board floor on a level with the ground at the upper side, 
thus making an excellent tool and machinery house over 
the space used for vegetables. 

Improvement Throng Ji Selection of Seed 

One of the first factors in successful potato growing is 
the securing of good seed. Without this, fertility of soil 
and careful cultivation are largely wasted. 

Good seed will possess the following qualities : It must 
(1) be pure, that is, free from mixtures of varieties; (2) 
be taken from productive plants, "hills selected"; (3) be 
uniform in size and shape; (4) be firm and sound, not 
shrunken or decayed; (5) be entirely free from disease; 
(6) not wholly mature when harvested ; (7) have sprouts 
just showing at time of planting. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 213 

It has been estimated by experts that attention to these 
points would add at least ten per cent, to the potato crop 
each year. This would mean an increase of nearly thirty- 
five million bushels, worth about twenty-one million dol- 
lars. 

Pure seed. — IMixed varieties present several disad- 
vantages in potato growing. The crop will not mature 
evenly. Thus, when the earlier variety has ripened and 
is ready for the market or table, the later one will have 
the potatoes just setting, and unfit for' use. Mixed vari- 
eties do not cook evenly, and when baked or broiled to- 
gether some will be overdone before others have softened. 
General mixture of varieties in potatoes as in other crops 
tends to degeneration and running out of the strain or 
breed. 

Seed from productive plants. — Seed should be taken 
only from the strongest and most productive plants, no 
matter what the variety. This can not be accomplished by 
selecting seed from the potato bin, any more than the best 
seed corn can be selected from the crib or wagon. For a 
certain tuber may itself be of good size and look promis- 
ing, but have come from a plant that produced but one or 
two potatoes, or that grew only one tuber of fair size, 
with several culls. 

One of the most successful methods of developing high- 
grade seed potatoes is what is called the tuber-unit method. 
This consists of selecting from the seed bin a quantity of the 
most perfect tubers, each to weigh from six to eight ounces. 



214 



AGRICULTURE AND 



These are cut for planting by splitting the tuber into four 
quarters, from seed end to stem end. 

The tuber-unit method. — ^The four pieces of each po- 
tato are planted in succession twelve inches apart in the row. 
A longer space is left between the sets of fours, thus mak- 




Club boj', aud prize seed potatoes, sprouted enougli for plant- 
ing. 

ing it possible to watch the outcome of each tuber by itself. 
Before the plants begin to die, careful inspection is made, 
and any mixtures, and imperfect or weak plants are marked 
for rejection. Only the most promising and uniforni are re- 
served for the selection of seed. 

When the crop is harvested, each set of four is dug by 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 215 

itself. A further selection is made by rejecting the total 
product if any one of the four plants has failed to pro- 
duce uniform, desirable tubers. The potatoes produced by 
each set of four selected for seed are put into separate sacks 
and kept for further examination. 

Finally, the contents of each sack are inspected for the 
weight of marketable and unmarketable tubers, and other 
desirable qualities of the type. From each of the four-plant 
units the best ten tubers are to be selected for the next year's 
planting. This selected seed is planted the following year, 
with forty plants to the unit instead of four. The product 
from the best forty-hill rows is kept for seed for the general 
crop for the following year. By thus keeping a breeding 
plat for seed, potatoes can be greatly improved, and the 
yield much increased. 

The tuber-unit method can be rendered even more ef- 
fective by making the first selection from the field instead 
of the potato bin. This is done by going into the field 
before the vines begin to die and marking a number of 
the most vigorous and desirable plants. These are har- 
vested separately before wholly mature, and seed taken 
from the best hills. 

The practise of planting for seed the small and unmar- 
ketable potato culls can not be too strongly condemned. It 
lessens the yield, lowers the quality of the crop and causes 
the variety to deteriorate or "run out." 

Cutting seed potatoes. — AVhether it pays better to 
cut potatoes for seed or plant the whole tuber has been 
much discussed. It is believed by many potato growers 



216 AGRICULTURE AND. 

that under average conditions the yield will be greater when 
quarters are planted than when pieces with single eyes are 
used, and that halves will produce more than quarters. It 
is not sure that whole tubers will produce a larger yield 
than that produced from halves. The weight of experi- 
ence seems to favor planting halves. 

Immature seed. — For vitality, high yield and good 
market qualities, potatoes intended for seed should be har- 
vested before entirely ripe (by hill selection) ; that is, be- 
fore the vines are dead. Many experiments have shown 
that immature seed will produce a considerably higher yield 
than seed allowed to ripen before digging. 

Contrary to the rule with most farm crops, seed brought 
from another region often produces a better crop of potatoes 
than home-grown seed. Especially is this true when north- 
ern grown potatoes are taken farther south. Not only is 
the yield increased, but the time required for maturing is 
shortened by securing seed from colder regions. Great care 
should be taken in importing seed tubers not to introduce 
new forms of potato diseases. 

Potato Enemies 

Potatoes have many enemies, and the number seems to 
be increasing, owing to diseases being brought in from 
other countries. 

Scab. — Scab is one of the most wide-spread and de- 
structive of potato diseases. It causes a rough, pitted, 
scabby condition which may attack the tuber in patches, 
or extend over the entire surface. A\^hether scab is caused 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 217 

by a fungous growth or a species of soil bacteria is not 
certain. It is fortunate, however, that a very simple and 
effective remedy is known. This consists in treating seed 
potatoes before planting. 

There are several mixtures used for this purpose; the 
cheapest and most easily applied is a formalin solution. 
This is prepared by mixing one pint of formalin with 
thirty gallons of water. The seed potatoes are soaked 
in the solution for two hours, and then planted without 
allowing them to come into contact with bags or utensils 
in which scabby potatoes have been kept. 

Leaf, on early blight. — Leaf blight is another common 
potato disease. It attacks the leaves and stems, first show- 
ing about the time that the tubers begin to form. Its pres- 
ence may be detected by the presence of grayish brown 
spots on the leaves, the part of the leaf attacked soon be- 
coming hard and brittle. Within three or four weeks the 
leaves are all killed, and the stem is also affected. The tubers 
grow but little after the leaves are first attacked; hence 
the crop is ruined unless the blight can be checked. 

The ravages of leaf blight can be almost if not wholly 
prevented by spraying the plants with the Bordeaux mixture 
(see page 399). This solution is applied with a spraying 
machine at the rate of about fifty gallons to the acre. From 
three to five sprayings during the season are required when 
leaf blight threatens. One pound of Paris green to the 
acre at the first spraying, and the same amount later in the 
season will also destroy the potato beetles, which often prove 
such a pest. 



218 AGRICULTURE AND 

Late blight, or rot. — The blotches and blackish 
streaks often seen running through tubers are caused by 
late blight, or potato rot. This disease first attacks the 
leaves and stems, causing them to soften and decay and pro- 
ducing a bad smell. Late bHght often appears suddenly, 
and spreads through a field with great rapidity. A green, 
healthy-looking field may- turn almost black in a day or two. 

The treatment for late blight is the same as for leaf 
blight, and should never be neglected in regions where 
blight is common. It is far better to commence the spraying 
before either form of bHght begins to appear, for this is the 
easiest time to prevent it. 

Rules for Protecting Against Potato Diseases 

The University of Wisconsin ofifers the following advice 
concerning certain potato diseases : 

Powdery Scab. — A bad European disease, recently brought 
into Canada and some eastern states. Hard to control. Keep 
it out of Wisconsin. Do not buy eastern seed. Send any 
suspicious potatoes to the Experiment Station for examination. 

Common Scab. — Found wherever potatoes are grown. Germs 
live over on tubers and in soil. Lime and ashes and horse 
manure increase disease; plowing under green crops (clover, 
etc.) checks. Use disinfected seed on clean soil, rotate crops. 

Black Scurf. — Common. Does little harm under Wisconsin 
conditions, but serious south and west, hence seed for these 
sections should be free from it. Rotate crop and where needed 
disinfect seed. 

Silver Scurf. — Not serious, chief damage from shriveling in 
storage. Use clean seed on clean soil, rotate. Seed disinfec- 
tion only partially successful. 

Black Leg and Rot. — Germs on seed tuber. This rots after 
planting, giving weak or partial stand. Rot spreads from seed 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 219 

tuber up base of stem; plants narrow, spindling, yellowish. 
May cause soft rot in crop. Probably does not live over in 
soil. Use only sound seed, disinfect. 

Late Blight and Rot. — Sometimes very destructive. Worse 
in northern counties and heavy soil. (Do not confuse with 
early blight and tip burn which are leaf diseases only.) Late 
or wet rot (if heavy wet soil). Winters over inside tubers. 
Get seed from healthy fields. Spraying, Bordeaux mixture on 
leaves, controls. 

Black Wart. — Has spread rapidly through Europe. Attacks 
eyes, deforms with repulsive warty growths. No remedy 
known. European potatoes quarantined to keep this out. 

To Disinfect Seed Potatoes. — Soak seed tubers for two hours 
in either of the following: 1. Formaldehyde (formalin, 40% 
strength) one pint in thirty gallons of water. Can use same 
solution repeatedly. Fully effective for common scab and 
black leg; helps with other scab and scurf diseases. 2. Cor- 
rosive sublimate (mercuric chloride; deadly poison) one part by 
weight to 1000 parts water (or four ounces in thirty gallons of 
water). Equal to formaldehyde for scab and better for scurf, 
especially black scurf. 



220 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XII 
SUGAR FARMING 

SUGAR is one of our most important foods. It has 
great nutritive value, is easily digested, and is palatable 
to nearly every one. We consume about four million tons 
a year, or more than eighty pounds for each person in the 
United States. In less prosperous nations sugar is found 
too expensive a food, and a much smaller proportion is 
used. Only about one-fourth of the sugar required for 
home consumption is grown In this country, the remainder 
being imported. 

There are five principal varieties of sugar used: cane 
sugar, beet sugar, maple sugar, corn sugar and sorghum. 
Cane sugar leads both in the amount used, and in the num- 
ber of grades produced. Most of the finer table and manu- 
facturing sugars are from cane. Beet sugar comes next in 
amount. Maple sugar is not produced in large amounts. 
Large quantities of corn sugar and sorghum are used in the 
form of sirup, or molasses. Less important varieties are 
grape sugar, from starch ; fruit sugar, from fruits and 
honey ; malt sugar, from malted grains ; and milk sugar 
from the milk of cows, goats, etc. The chemist usually 
divides all sugars into two classes, saccharose and glucose. 

Great quantities of sugar are produced in Cuba, Porto 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 221 

Rico and other of the West Indies Islands. The northern- 
most countries of South America also grow and manufac- 
ture much sugar, as do the Dutch East Indies. Hawaii 
has large sugar industries. Germany and France are lead- 
ers in the raising of sugar beets and their manufacture into 
sugar. Russia and Austria are also important beet sugar 
countries. 

The Sugar Regions 

Nearly every state grows some amount of one of the 
five principal kinds of sugar. 

Cane sugar region. — By far the greater part of the 
sugar used in this country is made from sugar cane. Only 
a small proportion of what we require is produced here, 
most of it being imported from the West Indies and other 
tropical or semi-tropical regions. Practically all our home- 
grown cane sugar is raised in the following states, which 
are named in the order of the amount produced: Louis- 
iana, Georgia, Texas, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, South 
Carolina, California, North Carolina. Of these states, 
Louisiana has produced more than twice as much as the 
other eight states combined. 

Beet sugar region. — The beet sugar region is far 
more widely distributed than the cane sugar region. The 
following are some of the leading beet sugar states : Colo- 
rado, California, Michigan, Utah, Idaho, Wisconsin, Mon- 
tana, Ohio, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska. This wide area 
indicates that sugar beets will thrive in a great variety of 
climates and soils. 

Sorghum sugar regions. — Sorghum also thrives over 



222 



AGRICULTURE AND 




« 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 223 

a wide range of territory, as will be seen from the dis- 
tribution of the following leading sorghum producing 
states: Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Texas, North 
Carolina, Illinois, Oklahoma, Indiana, Alabama, Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana and Ohio. 

Maple sugar region. — The leading maple sugar states 
are Vermont, ' New York and Ohio. New Hampshire, 
Pennsylvania, Michigan and Indiana also produce consider- 
able quantities. 



Producing Cane Sugar 

The cane sugar plant, which grows much like corn, was 
originally a tropical plant, but most varieties under culti- 
vation will thrive best in a semi-tropical climate. Some 
varieties will even succeed in temperate regions. Terri- 
tories having a temperature of from sixty-five degrees to 
ninety degrees Fahrenheit during midsummer are consid- 
ered best. Under good conditions the plants will grow 
from twelve to twenty feet high. 

Sugar cane was first introduced into Europe by the 
Moors. It was known as the "honey-bearing Indian 
reed." Plantations were later established in Spain and 
Sicily. Spanish sailors then carried the seed to the Azores, 
Canaries, West Indies and other islands. From these 
sources the plant was brought to America. 

Varieties of sugar cane. — The most common varie- 
ties grown in the United States are Louisiana Purple, 
which is known in Georgia as Red Cane ; Louisiana Striped 



224 AGRICULTURE AND 

.or Ribbon Cane; a strain known as D-74, and another 
known as D-75. 

Moisture. — Cane sugar, because of the large amount 
of fohage, requires abundant moisture during the grow- 
ing season. The average rainfall should be from two to 
four and one-half inches per month during the period of 
greatest growth. The cane may be successfully grown by 
irrigation, as it is capable of drawing from the soil practi- 
cally all the water supply necessary for its development. 

Soil requirements. — The soil requirements of the 
cane sugar plant are very much the same as those of the 
sugar beet, corn, potato and trucking crops. The soil 
should be well filled with humus, light and well-drained. 
The plant requires a well-prepared seed bed and is thought 
to produce the largest quantity of sugar content where the 
soil is best adapted for the production of corn and heavy 
forage crops. The cane sugar plant resists drought better 
than corn and is sometimes grown successfully in the semi- 
arid land of Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas and Nebraska. 

Cultivation and management of crop. — The cultiva- 
tion and general management of the soil before planting 
are similar to those required for successful corn production. 
After the seed bed has been thoroughly prepared by deep 
plowing and subsolling where possible, the soil should be 
pulverized thoroughly, and a fine surface mulch should be 
maintained throughout the growing season. This Is best 
done by shallow cultivation, and harrowing. The crop 
should be kept entirely free from weeds and should be 
thinned so as to permit the proper development of the canes. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 225 

Harvesting and manufacturing. — When the cane is 
used for forage purposes, as is often done, it is usually 
cut early in the season, when it has attained a height of 
about three or four feet. It can be fed at once, or put into 
a silo, or even cured in the field as hay and fed during 
the winter months. 

When used for sirup or sugar the cane should be cut 
before frost, or as soon as the heads are past the milk 
stage and before they harden. The heads or tops should 
be cut ofif and leaves stripped and kept for forage pur- 
poses. These are valuable for farm stock and the seed 
is especially prized for poultry. For seed purposes the 
best heads are cut when nearly ripe and hung up to dry. 

After the tops and leaves have been stripped, the canes 
are cut and hauled to the sugar house where they are run 
several times through crushers. The juices extracted from 
the cane are strained, allowed to settle in order to remove 
the impurities, and then evaporated to the proper consist- 
ency. If used as sirup the juice is canned in tin, if used 
for sugar it is kept in form of sap and then purified, evap- 
orated and refined, finally becoming either ivhlte, granu- 
lated, hroimi, or open kettle sugar, or New Orleans mo- 
lasses. 

Grozvlng Sugar Beets 

Under right conditions of climate and soil and with a 
sugar factory near at hand the raising of sugar beets can 
be made a very profitable industry. A farmer who drives 
to the factory with a ton of sugar beets has in them about 
two hundred and eighty pounds of pure sugar. Nature has 



226 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 227 

stored up in these ugly looking roots a large amount of 
sweetness and a valuable food. She has also made it pos- 
sible for the American farmer to make much profit in 
growing sugar content in his beet fields. 

Soil. — Sugar beets grow successfully in any soil that 
will produce a good crop of corn, wheat, potatoes, or other 
common crops. New soil, so favorable for most crops, is 
not so good as cropped soil for sugar beets, especially if 
the soil contains much decaying vegetable matter. Beets 
are a good reclaimer of run-down soils, and may some- 
times be used to help improve worn out or depleted land. 

Climate and moisture. — As far as temperature alone 
is concerned, regions having an average of seventy degrees 
Fahrenheit for June, July and August are most favorable 
for sugar beets. 

Sugar beets require a fair amount of moisture. This 
may be provided (1) by rainfall averaging from two to 
four inches per month during the growing season; (2) by 
irrigation; or (3) by sub-surface water seeping upward to 
the roots through soil of such a nature as to favor this 
method of irrigation. 

Sugar beetsi on irrigated land. — No more favorable 
conditions for raising sugar beets can be found than on 
the irrigated lands of the West. Nor can a more profitable 
crop be discovered for many semi-arid regions than beets. 
It has been estimated that one million acres of western 
irrigated land devoted to the raising of sugar beets under 
intensive cultivation would increase our sugar crop to such 



228 AGRICULTURE AND 

an extent that we could raise all we need instead of only 
twenty-five per cent, of it. 

Raising the crop. — Special methods are required for 
the successful raising of sugar beets. The ground should 
be plowed not less than nine inches deep. Tlie plow should 
be followed furrow by furrow with a subsoiler, loosening 
the soil to a depth of six or eight inches and more if possi- 
ble. The weeds must be kept down, as beets are not good 
fighters of such enemies. Frequent cultivation is required 
to maintain a loose soil and a fine mulch for the preserva- 
tion of moisture. 

In the manufacture of beet sugar the beets are hauled 
to the factory, dumped into a sort of flume through which 
water is flowing, and elevated by a large auger-like arrange- 
ment, to the upper story of the factory. By the time they 
have arrived at this stage they are thoroughly washed and 
ready for the sheer which cuts them up into long thin, 
diamond-shaped pieces. They are next run into wrought- 
iron tanks where they are allowed to stand in water under 
pressure. By repetition of this process from tank to tank, 
the water gradually absorbs the sugar from the beets, 
robbing them to within one-tenth of one per cent, of all 
they contain. This sweet juice is of a chocolate-brown 
color and needs much treatment before it is ready for use as 
table sugar. A succession of boiling, filtering and clarify- 
ing, together with the addition of lime for purifying and 
removing organic matter, brings the product to the sirup 
consistency. The sirup is put into large whirling drums and 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 229 

by centrifugal force the fine sugar grains are separated and 
prepared for the market. 

Producing Saccharine Sorghum 

The sorghums comprise a wide range of varieties, which 
may be divided into two great groups, ( 1 ) grain sorghums ; 
and (2) saccharine sorghums, used for forage purposes 
as well as sirup and sugar. 

Varieties of saccharine sorghums. — There are seven 
important saccharine sorghums : Sumac, Amber, Orange, 
Planter, Gooseneck, Honey and Sapling. Of these, the 
Sumac has proved the best for southern regions, and the 
Amber for northern regions. 

The Sumac is the sweetest, has the largest supply of 
leaves and yields best of the saccharine varieties. It re- 
quires from one hundred and eight to one hundred and four- 
teen days to mature seed. The Amber is more slender of 
stem, has fewer leaves, and matures seed in from ninety to 
ninety-four days. 

Climate and soil. — Sorghum will grow in any cli- 
mate and soil that will successfully produce corn. It 
roots more deeply than corn, and often does well for one 
or two crops on soil too much exhausted for a good yield 
of corn. Sorghum is, however, hard on the soil, since it 
produces so large an amount of forage and grain. Sorghum 
resists drought better than corn. It has proved successful 
in southwestern regions too dry for good corn production. 
The methods of fertilizing and cultivating suitable for 



230 AGRICULTURE AND 

dent corn are equally practical for production of the 
sorg-htim plant. 

Harvesting and manufacturing. — Sweet sorghum used 
as forage may be cut green from the time it is two or three 
feet high until it is ripe, and fed at once or cured for hay. 
If the sorghum is to be used for sirup or sugar, it should 
be cut from the time the seeds are well on in the milk stage 
until they are hard. The crop should be harvested before 
frost. 

The stalks are cut about six inches above the ground. 
The seed tops are cut off and saved for forage. The canes 
are run through a roller crusher to extract the juice, which 
is treated much the same as the juice from sugar cane in 
the process of its manufacture. 

Producing Maple Sugar 

The United States and Canada are the only regions 
where maple sugar is made. The American Indians un- 
derstood the art of making sugar from maple trees before 
the earliest explorers reached this continent. 

The sugar maple region. — While all maple trees 
have sweet sap, only a few varieties produce sugar in pay- 
ing quantities. The sugar maple stands first and the black 
maple second in importance. The red maple, silver maple 
and Oregon maple produce sugar sap, but hardly in paying 
quantities. 

The sugar maple is spread over a wide area, but occurs 
in large enough quantities for commercial sugar produc- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



231 



tion only in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, the 
states of the Ohio Valley and around the Great Lakes, 

Tapping the trees. — Tapping should be done as early 
in the season as the run of sap begins. Not only does this 
insure a larger quantity of sap, but the first runs are the 




Tapping maple trees in Vermont. Too many taps. 

sweetest. The time of tapping varies with the season and 
locality, usually from late in February till the middle of 
April. 

The hole bored in the tree should be from three-eights 
to one-half inch in diameter, and from one and a half to 



232 AGRICULTURE AND 

two inches deep. It should slant slightly upward into the 
tree so that the sap will easily drain out. As a rule only 
one tap to the tree should be made. Spouts, preferably 
of metal, are fitted into the holes, and covered buckets 
hung from the spouts to collect the sap. 

Making the sugar. — The sap should be kept free from 
dirt, strained and evaporated while the sap is fresh and 
sweet. Old sap which has been allowed to stand for 
any length of time will not make a high-grade product. 
It is usually evaporated by boiling in kettles, tanks, or other 
specially adapted apparatus. When the right consist- 
ency has been reached, the sirup is poured into molds 
and allowed to cool. It is then ready for market. Maple 
sugar is considered a delicacy, and many attempts have 
been made to produce substitutes as acceptable as the 
genuine article. Some of these have been so successful 
that it is often difficult to tell the imitation from the 
real. One authority says that were all the maple trees 
cut down we would continue to have "maple sirup" on 
the market. It is hoped, however, that the pure sirups, 
such as are now being produced in Vermont, New Hamp- 
shire, Maine and New York, will be produced in increasing 
quantities and that the lilllsides of much of this country 
will be reforested with maple trees and the maple sugar 
industry not only conserved but greatly encouraged and 
enlarged. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 233 



CHAPTER XIII 
TOBACCO CULTURE 

OUR of the leading agricultural plants have been 
given to the world by America. They are the white 
potato, the sweet potato, corn and tobacco. 

Tobacco belongs to the order of plants known as the 
nightshades, of which there are a countless number of 
varieties. 

History of tobacco. — ^The Indians of North America 
were probably the first users of tobacco. It is certain that 
they cultivated the plant long before the coming of the 
white men. Marquette and LaSalle, the early French ex- 
plorers, found it in cultivation and used by Indian tribes 
up and down the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers and their 
tributaries, as early as the last half of the seventeenth cen- 
tury. Other explorers found the Indian tribes at various 
points in what are now the states of Ohio and Kentucky 
raising and using the tobacco plant. 

The white men soon became addicted to the use of 
tobacco and began its systematic cultivation, particularly 
in Virginia and North Carolina. When pioneers from 
these colonies pushed westward into Kentucky they 
brought the tobacco with them and began its cultivation 
in this new region. It was found that Kentucky and the 



234 AGRICULTURE AND 

surrounding states were particularly well adapted to the 
growing of tobacco and its production soon became a 
leading industry. So important did tobacco become as a 
commercial product that it became a medium of exchange 
and took the place of money in the payment of debts. 

Although portions of the crop were from the first ex- 
ported to European countries, the steadily increasing de- 
mand of the home market kept most of the crop in this 
country. It was not until after the Civil War that any 
considerable foreign market was supplied. Since that time, 
however, American tobacco has found its way into prac- 
tically every country of the globe, and certain varieties now 
bring the highest price in England, France, Spain, Ger- 
many and other European nations. 

The Tobacco Region 

Soil and climate. — Tobacco may be successfully 
grown in all latitudes in the United States from Canada 
to the Gulf of Mexico. Yet the quality and flavor of the 
plants are so greatly afifected by climate and soil that the 
crop is nearly all raised in a relatively small area. On fertile 
clay soil the tobacco plant grows large and heavy with leaves 
rich in oil or gum and cures dark red or black. In light 
sandy soil the same strain will produce thin leaves, fine tex- 
ture, and will cure yellow or mahogany color, hence the ne- 
cessity of selecting the soil carefully. Kentucky and the 
states bordering upon it produce more than half of our 
native crop. 

The best tobacco soil, both for productivity and also for 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 235 

color and flavor, seems to be cleared timber land. Soil of 
tliis type is light, friable, reasonably clear of weeds, and 
possesses the fertility required for tobacco production. 
Where timber land is not available, brush land is often 
cleared and used for tobacco. In regions where neither is 
available, prairie land is pressed into service and is found, 
in many places, to yield excellent results. Tobacco grow- 
ers have found that blue-grass sod land gives tobacco an 
excellent color and flavor. Where blue-grass is not avail- 
able it is desirable to plow under clover or some other 
legume, to increase soil fertility and add organic matter. 
The tobacco states. — The twelve leading states in 
tobacco production are : Kentucky, Virginia, North Caro- 
lina, Tennessee, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Wiscon- 
sin, South Carolina, Connecticut, Maryland and Missouri. 
This territory grows more than ninety-five per cent, of the 
native commercial crop. 

Uses and Classes of Tobacco 

In accordance with the use to which it is put tobacco 
may roughly be divided into two great classes: (1) cigar 
tobaccos, and (2) tobaccos for other lines of manufacture. 
Each of these classes has several types or varieties. 

Cigar tobaccos. — A cigar consists of three different 
parts, -wrapper, or the outer layer of tobacco leaves ; hinder, 
or the second layer ; and filler, or the central portion. Each 
of these parts requires a different type of tobacco. The 
tobacco in a single cigar may therefore come from three 
widely separated regions. 



236 AGRICULTURE AND 

For example, the Connecticut valley and parts of Flori- 
da and Georgia are the principal wrapper-leaf sections of 
the United States. Wisconsin and Pennsylvania produce 
chiefly a binder-leaf type. Certain districts in Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio and New York, and small areas in Florida, 
Georgia and Texas grow the filler-leaf types. 

Three important varieties comprise most of the cigar 
tobaccos produced in this country. These are: (1) the 
Broadleaf, or Seedleaf, group, grown chiefly for wrapper 
and binder purposes ; (2) the Havana Seed group, a wrap- 
per and binder variety, though grown also for filler; and 
(3) the Cuban group, grown principally in southern re- 
gions for use as filler. 

Manufacturing tobacco. — Kentucky and parts of ad- 
joining states are the chief region of the United States 
for the production of manufacturing tobacco. Many 
different varieties are grown, chief among which are 
White Burley, Maryland, Oronoca and Pryor. 

These and other similar strains are also produced in 
^most states of the South. 

Raising the Crop 

Tobacco requires more careful cultivation than almost 
any other farm crop. This, in part, is because the plant 
is very sensitive to soil and climatic conditions, and in part 
because the flavor is affected by the soil conditions and the 
care given the plants. 

Soil and seed bed. — Rapid and unhindered growth 
from time of planting to maturity is necessary to secure fine 



THE FARAIlXXx BUSINESS 237 

texture and good flavor. The seed bed should therefore 
be worked to the finest tilth 

Tobacco, like cotton and corn, requires a rich soil and 
a careful rotation of crops. A free use of fertilizer, es- 
pecially nitrogen and potash, is necessary for the best re- 
sults. From ten to twenty tons of stable manure to the acre 
should be plowed under, preferably in the fall, and the 
ground well cultivated in the spring before planting. Com- 
mercial fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus and po- 
tassium are often profitably used in addition to manure. 
Most tobacco soils also require the application of lime, not 
alone to improve the growth of the plant, but also to bet- 
ter its quality. 

An eight-year rotation of crops with tobacco the pre- 
dominating interest is recommended by the United States 
Department of Agriculture in Bui. No. 343, and is as 
follows : 

(1) Tobacco. (5) Clover, timothy, blue-grass. 

(2) Tobacco. (6) Timothy, blue-grass. 

(3) Wheat. (7) Timothy, blue-grass. 

(4) Clover, timothy, blue-grass. (8) Blue-grass. 

It is noted that in this rotation, clover, timothy and 
blue-grass are used after the third year. If these three 
grasses are sown together, they will all appear the first and 
second years after their seeding. By the third year the 
clover has practically died oiit, leaving but timothy and 
blue-grass. By the fifth year timothy has also disap- 
peared, and blue-grass is supreme. The sod can now be 
plowed under and tobacco again planted. 



(1) 


Tobacco, 


(2) 


Wheat. 


(3) 


Clover. 


(4) 


Corn. 



238 AGRICULTURE AND 

Two shorter rotations particularly for the Kentucky 
region are recommended as follows : 

(1) Tobacco. 

(2) Wheat. 

(3) Wheat. 

(4) Clover. 

Burning the seed bed. — Many tobacco growers find it 
profitable to burn the rubbish of the seed bed surface before 
planting the crop. This is usually done either (1) by 
shoveling the top two or three inches of soil into a specially 
constructed sheet-iron box heated by a wood fire and moved 
over the field ; or (2) by the application of steam heat 
directed to the surface of the field by means of appa- 
ratus devised for the purpose. The object of this 
heating of the soil is to kill the weeds and other tobacco 
enemies and thereby give the plants a better chance for 
free growth. 

Burning is an expensive process and it is doubted by 
some growers whether it pays, provided clean cultivation 
is used to keep the weeds down and rotation is practised 
to hinder the development of insect enemies. Burning 
has but little effect on soil fertility, possibly favoring cer- 
tain elements and hindering others. Humus and other 
forms of organic matter so necessary to the soil are in 
some degree injured or destroyed by the burning process. 

Seed selection. — The seed from the tobacco plant 
should be as carefully selected from the mother stalk as is 
the cotton or seed corn. Seed should be taken from the 
healthy plants with well-shaped leaves free from suckers. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



239 



The proper standard of a plant for quality and high pro- 
duction should be considered. 

Planting and cultivation. — Tobacco plants are grown 
from seed planted in hotbeds or cold-frames. The plants 




A typical Counecticut tobacco field. 



are transplanted to the field in rows about three and one-half 
feet apart. The transplanting may be done by hand or with 
a horse machine. Cultivation should begin as soon as the 
plants have started to grow and continue as long as the size 
of plants will permit. The first cultivation should be deep, 



240 



AGRICULTURE AND 




New cigar leaf, Cooley lij-brid plant. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



241 



and the later ones should be shallow to avoid cutting the 
roots and to conserve the soil moisture. 

Certain types of tobacco, as for example the Burley, 
require topping in order to produce the best results. This 
process Involves breaking or cutting out the top of the 




Curing tobacco in bai'u on a large Kentucky plantation. 

plant when the growth has attained from ten to fourteen 
inches, so that the leaves will spread and develop proper 
body and thickness. Topping requires certain skill and 
judgment on the part of the grower. Each plant must be 
judged and the right amount taken from the top. A slow 



242 AGRICULTURE AND 

growing plant should not be topped so high as a rapid 
grower. Similarly, plants produced on poor soil should 
not be topped so high as those grown on rich soil. If the 
topping is skilfully done, the plants will produce leaves of 
about equal body and all will ripen at approximately the 
same time. 

Harvesting the crop. — Tobacco is harvested by one 
of two different methods. Either (1) the entire plant is 
cut off near the ground when the middle leaves are ripe, 
allowed to wilt for a time, and then hung under cover to 
cure; or (2) several pickings of leaves are made by be- 
ginning with those nearest the ground, which ripen first, 
and stripping them from the central stalk. When this 
plan is followed the leaves are carried to the curing barn 
when partly wilted and hung in rows to dry. Usually five 
pickings are required for harvesting the entire crop. 

Insect Enemies 

The tobacco plant is subject to fewer enemies than most 
other farm crops, yet much damage at times results from 
the ravages of certain insects. 

The tobacco flea-beetle. — The tobacco flea-beetle or 
"flea bug" is widely distributed and does much harm to 
growing tobacco. It is a small insect, oval in shape and 
reddish-brown in color. The beetles usually appear in 
July, beginning their attack on the lower leaves and grad- 
ually proceeding to the upper. The leaves upon which the 
beetles have fed show small dry spots which later become 
holes through the leaf. As the leaf is the valuable part 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



243 



of the plant it is evident that great damage may be done 
the crop by these pests. 

A few simple remedies are efifective in large degree in 
destroying the tobacco flea-beetle. First, since the insect 
thrives on several different kinds of weeds, such as the 
jimson and various nightshades, the margins of the field 




Small farm tobacco curing bam, South Carolina. 



should be kept clear of all weeds that might serve to 
harbor the beetles. Second, a few clumps of such weeds 
may be left at certain places about the field to attract the 
insects and these clumps then treated with arsenate of 
lead or any other of the arsenical sprays. Third, the to- 
bacco plants themselves may be sprayed with similar 
poisons. 

The hornblower. — The "hornblower" is also found in 



244 



AGRICULTURE AND 



almost every part of the tobacco region, and it frequently 
causes great damage. The horn worm is the larva, or 
caterpillar, of either one of two species of sphinx moths. 
The worm is from two to three inches in length, green 
in color, with the horn, or tail, end of the body either red 
or black, depending on the species to which it belongs. 




Tbe row to row variety test of a tobacco experiment station. 
Nortli Carolina. 

Since the horn worm feeds on the leaves of the plant, 
it may be controlled in the same way as the flea-beetle, 
by the use of arsenical sprays. Some planters depend on 
hand picking of the worms when the number is not too 
great. The. moths from which the caterpillars come are 
sometimes poisoned by placing sweetened cobalt in the 
flowers of the jimson weed from which the insects suck 
honey. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 245 

Tobacco bud worms. — Two different species of 
worms attack the buds of growing tobacco, biting holes in 
the young leaves. One of these, called the true bud worm, 
occurs frequently in southern tobacco regions. The moth 
from which the caterpillar comes is small and of a green- 
ish color. The other species, called the false bud worm, 
is the same caterpillar that attacks cotton, corn, tomatoes 
and various other crops. It is familiar throughout the 
South as the cotton boll worm, and in the North as the 
corn-ear zvorrn. 

The best remedy so far devised for these pests is the 
arsenical sprays already recommended. Rotation of 
crops, clean culture and freedom from weed fringes about 
the fields will also tend to reduce their number. 



246 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XIV 
FORAGE CROPS 

THE forage crops in the United States rank next in 
value after corn and cotton. The total acreage of im- 
proved pastures and harvested forage crops is considerably 
greater than that of all of the grain crops put together. Be- 
sides the improved pastures and harvested crops there are 
milHons of acres of wild land, timber land and other so- 
called waste places, covered with grasses capable of feed- 
ing thousands of head of live stock. 

Tv^^o groups of forage plants. — In thinking of our 
forage plants it must not be forgotten that our great 
cereals, corn, wheat, oats, barley, rice, rye and so on, are 
members of the grass family and so belong to the forage 
group. Besides producing grain they yield thousands of 
tons of roughage, indispensable in the feeding of certain 
animals. The two great classes of forage plants are, (1) 
grasses, and (2) legumes. 

Classes of Grasses 

Grasses differ from legumes in that they bear their seeds 
either in a spike like wheat, barley or timothy, or else in a 
panicle, like oats, blue-grass or meadow fescue; legumes 
produce their seeds in pod-like structures, as in the case 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 247 

of beans and peas. Most of the grasses have hollow stems 
with nodes or joints dividing the stems into sections. The 
grasses have widely differing roots, but practically all are 
alike in the fibrous and spreading quality of their root struc- 
ture. Some of the grasses are annuals, that is, they make 
their growth, flower, and produce seed and die all in one 
season. Such is the case with oats, corn or wheat. These 
and other annual grasses must be planted afresh from the 
seed each year. Other grasses are perennial; they live on 
from season to season without replanting, as timothy, 
Bermuda grass, redtop and many others. In such grasses 
the stems die down to the ground each season, but the roots 
live on, throwing up a new plant when the growing time 
comes again. 

Timothy. — Probably one of the most important of the 
grasses, considering the extent of territory over which it 
thrives and its feeding value, is timothy. Timothy grows 
throughout all of the northern, central and eastern portions 
of the United States, being especially luxuriant throughout 
the great corn belt. It commands the highest price of any 
of the grasses, especially for the feeding of horses. Timothy 
does not do well in the cotton region, except in the extreme 
northern section and does not well withstand the drought 
of the semi-arid regions of the West. 

Blue-grass. — Kentucky blue-grass is one of the two 
most important forage plants, which also grow best in 
northern, central and eastern regions. It makes its best 
growth in the fall and spring and remains green through- 
out the winter, thereby affording excellent picking for 



248 AGRICULTURE AND 

stock in northern regions when other grasses are dead. 
Redtop, or herd's-grass, while it is seldom used alone either 
for hay or grazing, is an important factor in both meadows 
and pastures. It makes its best growth on soils that are 
damp and too poorly drained for most other crops, there- 
by making productive much land that otherwise would be 
relatively useless. Redtop, like blue-grass, is excellent for 
winter grazing. 

Fescue. — Meadow fescue may be made an important 
grass for certain regions, but has so far been raised chiefly 
in the eastern part of Nebraska and Kansas. It is adapted 
to the entire central and eastern portion of the United States 
and is a better resistant of drought than blue-grass. Mea- 
dow fescue is perennial, with long fibrous roots, a panicle 
head and a stalk that grows to the height of twenty-four 
inches on good soil. It will survive well in wet places, even 
when trampled by stock, and is therefore of value in the 
pasture mixture. It is palatable to all grass-eating animals 
and will probably be used far more extensively as its value 
becomes known. 

Bermuda grass. — Bermuda grass is the foundation of 
many permanent pastures in the South and in many locali- 
ties is important for its yield of hay. -It endures severe 
drought and is an excellent grazing grass from spring until 
late fall. Bermuda grass is desirable for lawns and its 
thick tough root system makes it excellent for binding 
levees and ditch banks which are in danger of washing. It 
thrives best in rich heavy soil. Carpet grass is to the light 
sandy soils of the South what Bermuda grass is to the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 249 

richer soils. It is found in its greatest perfection near the 
Gulf coast where it volunteers very quickly where the land 
is pastured or heavily trampled. Carpet grass, while valu- 
able for grazing, is worth little for hay, since it does not 
grow to sufficient height for harvesting. 

Johnson grass. — Johnson grass, also adapted to south- 
ern conditions, makes an excellent hay and gives good 
grazing. It is, however, so hard to eliminate when growing 
in fields where it is not wanted, that is comes dangerously 
near making a pest of itself and can as yet hardly be recom- 
mended for general use. 

Soudan grass. — A new grass recently introduced into 
the South came from Khartoum, Soudan, in 1909, and is 
called Soudan grass. In appearance It resembles Johnson 
grass, but is taller, more erect, and has a broader leaf. It 
also lacks the underground root-stocks of the Johnson 
grass, and hence does not cause trouble by spreading 
where it Is not wanted. Several cuttings a season can be 
made under favorable conditions, the yield varying from 
one to eight tons of cured hay to the acre. This new grass 
promises to become the great hay grass of the South as 
timothy is of the North. It also bids fair to find a place 
in irrigated regions as a forage to combine with alfalfa hay. 

Millet. — Another important group of grasses are the 
millets, which comprise a wide range of cereal producing 
grasses, whose seeds are usually small as compared with 
other cereals, such as wheat, oats or barley. Millets are 
not only important as forage plants, but in many parts of 
the world they constitute one of the most important parts of 



250 AGRICULTURE AND 

the human food supply. It has been estimated that they 
form one of the most important articles of food for about 
one-third of the inhabitants of the globe. India produces 
nearly forty million acres of millets each year, and Japan 
uses annually some thirty-five million bushels of millet seed 
for human food. Korea, China and other countries of Asia 
also use large quantities of the millets for food. 

It is doubtful whether the millets should be made the 
chief crop in any section of the United States. Their place 
on the farm is rather a supplementary one, — a "catch crop," 
where corn has failed because of hail, poor seed or inifav- 
orable weather, or as a substitute for corn in regions where 
that crop is not easily or profitably grown. Millet is also 
an excellent crop to put on foul land to get rid of weeds. 
It is considered in some sections a good supplement to the 
regular and permanent pastures and meadows where the 
forage supply is short from other sources. Farmers should 
be familiar with the value and mode of cultivation of the 
millets and bring them into service wherever they promise 
profitable results. 

The Legumes 

The legumes constitute as great a variety of forage 
plants as the grasses. While f e\v of them will thrive equally 
well in all parts of the United States, there is no region 
where some legumes can not be grown with profit. Not only 
do legumes furnish as good a forage crop as the grasses, but 
added to this they can be made to contribute greatly to the 
conservation and upbuilding of the soil, both as to its fer- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 251 

tility and physical qualities. Both grasses and legumes tend 
to improve the soil through their decaying roots, stems and 
leaves. This decaying organic matter forms, after certain 
chemical changes have taken place, the important part of 
the soil called humus. This vegetable matter not only en- 
riches the soil, but makes it lighter and more porous so 
that air can better get to the roots of growing plants. The 
porosity of the soil favored by the presence of this vegetable 
matter also results in better drainage for wet soils. 

Legumes as nitrogen gatherers. — Legumes, however, 
enrich the soil in a special way, and are widely cultivated 
for this purpose. In order to understand how legumes do 
their work of improving the soil, it must be known that 
plants demand certain foods from the soil. One of the 
most necessary plant foods is nitrogen. If this is lacking in 
the soil, the crop does not grow well, and the yield is re- 
duced. For example, wheat takes much nitrogen from the 
soil ; this is the main reason why wheat can not be grown 
profitably on the same land year after year. The nitrogen 
becomes exhausted. The soil is "worn out." It is esti- 
mated that a twenty-bushel crop of wheat removes about 
thirty-five pounds of nitrogen from each acre. 

Nitrogen may be returned to the soil in several ways. 
One of the most common ways is by means of barnyard 
manure, which is rich in nitrogen. Another way is through 
commercial fertilizers, such as sodium nitrate, ammonium 
sulphate, or dried blood saved from slaughter-houses. But 
the amount of manure is limited, and the commercial fertil- 
izers are expensive. And this is where the legumes come 



252 AGRICULTURE AND 

in to help. Legumes are able to gather nitrogen from the 
air and deposit it in the soil at very little expense to the 
farmer. 

Nitrifying bacteria. — There are milHons of pounds of 
nitrogen in the atmosphere resting on every acre of ground. 
But the plants can not make use of this nitrogen in the form 
in which it exists in the air. It has to be made over for 
them. This is accomplished by bacteria which have their 
homes in the tubercles or nodules found on the roots of le- 
guminous plants. 

In the small tubercles to be seen on the roots of clover, 
alfalfa, soy-beans or cow-peas are millions of bacteria, 
each able in the process of its own growth to take nitrogen 
from the air, change it into the form needed by growing 
plants, and leave it in the soil for the next crop. In this 
way the legume is able not only to secure its own growth, 
but to leave the soil richer through the action of these bac- 
teria friends. The raising of legumes is, therefore, one of 
the best and most economical ways of enriching the soil. So 
important is the group of legumes that a separate chapter 
will be given to the most important ones. 

Forage Producing Region 

Measured by the acreage and also by the value, the most 
important forage-producing region in the United States is 
found in the north central states, reaching from Michigan 
and Ohio on the east to Kansas and Nebraska on the 
west, and as far south as the cotton region. It Is in this 
territory that we find the great dairy herds and the largest 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 253 

number of beef cattle and of horses. Where good pasturage 
is available, little or no grain is fed to growing stock, and 
often none even to milk cows ; and when grain is used to fat- 
ten stock or give strength as in the case of work horses, 
forage is essential to supply the volatile oils and mineral 
content, as well as the bulk and coarseness necessary to 
digestion. Forage in tlie form of clover and alfalfa is 
also coming to be recognized as one of the most profitable 
foods for growing pigs. 

Forage crops in South and West. — Forage grasses 
and legumes adapted to southern and southwestern regions 
are now being studied and tested with great care and there 
is every reason to believe that these territories, as well as 
the great central section, will soon have available a consid- 
erable range of forage plants, enabling them to compete 
still more successfully with other sections and countries in 
economic production of live stock and in the upbuilding of 
their soils. 



254 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XV 
MEADOWS AND PASTURES 

ALTHOUGH meadows and pastures claim more than 
Lhalf of all the farm land of the United States, they re- 
ceive far less attention than ^ny other part of the farm. 
About one-fourth of the acreage from which hay is harvested 
is native wild meadow ; this is chiefly located in the newer 
portions of the West. Pastures are often used from year to 
year with no care taken to improve them. Yet in many cases 
meadows and pastures well repay the time and expense nec- 
essary to make them more productive. 

Aleadozvs 

Requirements of a meadow. — Meadows are commonly 
used for a double purpose — the production of hay, and 
providing the rotation of crops required to maintain the 
fertility of the soil. It is necessary therefore to select such 
plants for the meadow as will serve both of these ends. 
This is possible with our wide range of grasses and legumes 
from which to choose. 

Meadow plants should (1) yield well; (2) be palatable; 
(3) tend to improve the soil; (4) grow strong and thick 
enough to keep down the weeds; (5) produce an even firm 
sod, free from high tufts or bunches. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



255 



The surface of the meadow should be smooth and free 
from obstructions of all kinds that will interfere with the 
harvesting of the hay crop. 

Meadow grasses and legumes. — Most of our meadows 
are mixtures of grasses, or of grasses with legumes. Al- 
falfa seems to thrive best alone, but most meadow plants 
grow well in company with some other variety. Red or 




Baling bay in the West directly from tlie meadow. 

crimson clover and timothy, for example, are commonly 
found growing together. 

Several advantages come from planting mixed meadows : 
the different plants draw their nourishment from various 
depths of the soil, thus using its full strength more com- 
pletely and increasing the yield of hay ; mixtures accommo- 
date themselves to peculiarities of seasons, sometimes one 
grass and sometimes another thriving better; mixed forage 
provides variety for stock, making the feed more palatable 
and aft'ording a wider range of food elements. 



256 AGRICULTURE AND 

When hay is raised for market instead of being fed on 
the farm, liowever, it is often best to devote the meadow 
to one plant alone, thus producing what is called a "pure" 
hay. Timothy is the favorite meadow grass for pure hay, 
and leads the market in all the great hay-buying centers. 
For working horses, timothy is thought by many to be su- 
perior to clover or to mixed forage. Pure red clover or 
alfalfa is often desired for fattening stock. 

Meadow mixtures. — The mixture to be used in seed- 
ing a meadow will depend on the climate, soil and use to 
which the forage is to be put. Red clover and timothy 
are the most common mixture found throughout the north- 
ern states, the proportion of seed used being about three- 
fifths timothy and two-fifths clover. For damp undrained 
soil, alsike clover is substituted for red clover, or mixed 
with it. A very common mixture for average soils is the 
following amounts per acre: 

Timothy 15 pounds 

Red clover 6 " 

Alsike clover 4 " 

This combination will produce about a half-and-half mix- 
ture of hay the first year, with timothy predominating the 
second year, and pure timothy thereafter. On very wet 
soils, redtop may be substituted for the red clover. If the 
soil is also strong in acid, it is best to omit both clovers, 
and use the redtop with the timothy. 

Management of meadows. — Under our system of rota- 
tion of crops meadows are usually not left down more than 
from two to four years, with sometimes a year or two of 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 257 

pasturing before the sod is broken up for other crops. 
Most of our meadows are therefore new and, hke a straw- 
berry bed, must be constantly remade. 

One of the chief enemies of the meadow are weeds. They 
not only hinder the newly seeded meadow from getting a 
good start, but injure the value of hay, reducing the mar- 
ket price. If allowed to grow in the meadow from year 
to year, the weeds will also leave the soil foul for the crops 
that follow when the meadow is again tilled. 

Spring seeded meadows should not be pastured the fol- 
lowing fall even if the plants look thriving. This is sure 
to reduce the yield of hay the following season, and may 
cause the plants to winter kill by exposing the roots. The 
aftermath, or second growth, on older meadows may be 
pastured, though it does not pay to feed them close. Es- 
pecially should new meadows not be trampled by stock 
while wet. 

Permanent meadows. — Many meadows are located on 
wet ground, or on soil that for some reason is not cropped. 
In other cases there is neglect to rotate the meadow land 
with the remainder of the fields in the crop series. It is 
often found that meadows that are thus left for a number 
of years have a tendency to "run out." 

The yield of hay on almost any meadow left without 
attention for several years decreases from one-third to one- 
half. Weeds begin to appear, and patches here and there 
become thin or die out. The less desirable grasses crowd 
out the better ones. Such a meadow is highly unprofitable. 
If tillable, it should be plowed up and put into other crops, 



258 AGRICULTURE AND 

If not tillable, it should be improved and its quality 
kept up. 

It is not hard to keep permanent meadows in a state 
of high production, but it requires some labor and expense. 
The following treatment will do much to keep permanent 
meadows in good condition: (1) No weeds are to be al- 
lowed to go to seed; (2) if the soil is run down, the field 
should be manured or other fertilizer used on it; (3) the 
soil should be loosened and the sod-bound condition relieved 
by disking ; (4) fresh pure grass seed should be scattered, 
especially over thin or weedy places. 

Pastures 

More improved farm land is devoted to pastures than 
to any cultivated crop. Pasturage supplies the greater pro- 
portion of the feed for the production of milk, butter, beef, 
mutton and wool and is an important factor in the produc- 
tion of poultry and pork. The annual value of our pastur- 
age is more than that of any other crop raised. 

Requirements of a pasture. — Pastures should possess 
in general the same qualities as meadows. They should 
(1) yield well; (2) have such grasses as will start early 
and continue to grow late; (3) be palatable and nutritious 
to stock; (4) form a firm tough sod that will stand tramp- 
ling; (5) have fine rather than coarse grasses; and (6) be 
free from weeds. 

Pasture grasses and legumes. — The best meadow 
grasses are not always the best pasture grasses. For ex- 
ample, timothy, the queen of hay grasses, is too coarse 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 259 

when used alone for the best pasture grass, and does not 
stand trampling so well as some others. 

Pastures should usually be made of a mixture of plants. 
This will provide some varieties that start earlier than 
others, root at different depths, adjust themselves to various 
kinds of seasons, supply variety for stock, and endure longer 
without running out. Pasture mixtures should contain a 
much greater variety than meadow mixtures. 




liny loader nt work. Second-yen r timothy. 

Pasture mixtures. — Over the greater portion of the 
United States north of the cotton belt and the region west of 
the Missouri River, Kentucky blue-grass and white clover 
are the most common and valuable pasture grasses. No mat- 
ter what mixture is sown, one or both of these grasses is 
sure to make its appearance, and gradually force most 
other grasses out. When blue-grass and white clover have 
taken possession of a pasture they grow reasonably well to- 
gether, though in some seasons one of them will predomi- 
nate, and again the other. 

Throughout the South, Bermuda grass is the chief pas- 



2C0 . AGRICULTURE AND 

ture plant, though it is commonly mixed with Rhodes grass 
for dry soils and with orchard grass for wet regions. 
Redtop is successful on wet heavy soil. Bermuda is a per- 
ennial plant spreading rapidly by root stocks, and may be- 
come a troublesome weed where it is not wanted. It is 
an excellent grass for hay and makes a good foundation 
for southern lawns. 

For starting a pasture on good land in northern regions, 
a mixture may be made of something like the following 
proportions : 

Timothy 10 pounds 

Red clover 3 

Alsike clover 2 

White clover 2 

Kentucky blue-grass 3 

Brome-grass 2 

Meadow^ fescue 2 

Orchard grass 2 

This will make sufficient seed for one acre. If the pas- 
ture is on very wet undrained land, the red clover may 
be omitted and redtop substituted in its stead. Even though 
timothy will soon be driven out by blue-grass and white 
clover, it should head the mixture as it roots more quickly 
than the others, and acts as a cover crop while the slower 
grasses are getting started. 

Care of pastures. — If permanent pastures are to be 
kept up to a high state of efficiency they demand even 
more care than meadows. 

On fairly good soils, pastures do not usually require 
manuring, though a light coat of manure will increase the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



261 



yield of any pasture. Nearly every pasture needs the as- 
sistance of a mower to keep down the weeds. This is be- 
cause stock do not find most weeds palatable, and so eat 
the grass, leaving the weeds to flourish. Many pastures 
are thickly sprinkled with weeds which not only rob the 
soil but prevent cattle from eating the grass growing 




Stacking by means of moderu machinery saves much labor. 



close to their roots, thus adding to the waste. Weeds 
should be cut from the pasture each year before they bear 
seed. 

Grazing stock not only reject the weeds for the more 
palatable grass, but also have their preference among 
grasses. All have noted that the uplands in a pasture are 



262 AGRICULTURE AND 

grazed close, while low wet areas are hardly touched. In 
many cases the low parts of a pasture are almost wasted, 
because the redtop and other wet-soil grasses are less 
palatable than the blue-grass and clovers which thrive only 
on well-drained soil. Such marshy places should be drained ; 
the better pasture grasses will then soon take possession. 

Pastures, like meadows, may become sod-bound. Almost 
every pasture can be improved by disking or cultivating 
with a knife-toothed harrow. When this is done, fresh 
grass seed should be scattered on thin places, or a desirable 
new variety added to the plants already established. 

After being grazed, pastures grow better if they have 
a rest from trampling and cropping during the wet season. 
It is therefore best to have two pastures, using them 
alternately, instead of feeding the one continuously through- 
out the season. Such an arrangement usually requires only 
the expense of a partition fence, which the increased yield 
and comfort to animals from the pasture will well repay. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 263 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE CLOVERS 

CLOVERS are the most widely grown family of 
legumes among the farm crops. There are many dif- 
ferent types of clover, such as red clover, white clover, al- 
sike clover and crimson clover. The most important of 
these is the red clover, especially throughout the central and 
northeastern quarters of the United States. The great red- 
clover section reaches from Maine to Virginia, and as far 
west as the Missouri River. Either alone, or mixed with 
grasses for hay and pasture, red clover claims from one- 
eighth to one-third of all the cultivated land throughout the 
northeastern and north central states. It is now also being 
successfully grown in Montana, Washington, Oregon and 
in the far Southwest. 

Red clover is so common a plant that every one Is 
familiar with it wherever it grows. It has a larger and 
more deeply penetrating root system than timothy and its 
rootlets, particularly during the early part of the growing 
season, bear many tubercles inhabited by the nitrifying 
bacteria. 

Value of Red Clover on the Farm 

Red clover as forage for stock.— Red clover makes an 
ideal forage crop for all classes of farm stock. Besides 



264 AGRICULTURE AND . 

being highly palatable, it contains a large proportion of 
protein, one of the most necessary elements of food for ani- 
mals. So essential is protein for the growth of animals 
and the production of milk and butter, that bran, oil meal, 
and cottonseed-meal are commonly fed to supply this ele- 
ment. Where red clover can be successfully raised it largely 
takes the place of the more costly foods, and at the same 
time supplies the roughage needed by all animals. When 
grain is fed, as to chickens, hogs or cattle, red clover, either 
green or cured, forms a most valuable item of food. 

The worth of clover as an animal food has not been 
fully understood. It has been com7uted by experts that a 
ton of red-clover hay has almost two-thirds as much feed- 
ing value for farm stock as a ton of wheat bran, and more 
than two-thirds the feeding value of a ton of shelled 
corn. 

Red clover as a soil renewer. — As a soil stimulant and 
fertilizer red clover is almost without a peer except alfalfa. 
By its use in the rotation of crops, it is possible to keep 
the supply of nitrogen and humus nearly undiminished in 
the soil, throughout years of cropping. The bacteria living 
in the root tubercles transform atmospheric nitrogen into 
soil nitrogen and leave it for other crops. The roots and 
stems, decaying, add to the humus. 

At the average price for commercial fertilizers often 
used to enrich land, a ton of clover is worth nearly ten dol- 
lars to plow under as a fertilizer. Fields which have been 
in red clover frequently produce ten bushels more of grain 
to the acre than before the clover was grown. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 265 

In the use of clover as a fertilizer it must be remem- 
bered, however, that clover adds to the soil chiefly nitrogen 
and humus; and that if the crop is all removed each year, 
none being plozved under and no manure returned, the 
amounts of nitrogfen and humus in the soil are increased but 
very little. Potash and phosphorus, two other plant foods 
often failing in worn soils, must be supplied either by the 
use of commercial fertilizers or barnyard manure. 

The Raising of Red Clover 

Red clover will grow successfully on any soil that will 
raise corn. Soil that is wet and heavy or lacking in humus 
will not produce a satisfactory stand of clover. Red clover 
has a remarkable root system, sending its main roots down 
as deep as six or eight feet in light friable soil. This en- 
ables plants which have received a good start to withstand 
considerable drought. 

The seed bed. — The seed bed for clover should be 
finely pulverized, but well packed. If sown on freshly 
plowed land, it is necessary to harrow until the ground be- 
comes firm, otherwise a poor stand is sure to follow. The 
ground should be clean, as clover is not a good fighter of 
weeds. 

Red clover nTay be sown in the early spring on fields of 
winter wheat. In this case no preparation of the seed bed 
is required. The covering of the seed may be accomplished 
by weathering. A more certain way is to harrow the 
wheat after the clover has been sown, or even both before 
and after the seeding of the clover. If properly done this 



266 



AGRICULTURE AND 






A young red-clover plant, showing tlie characteristic nodules 
(,n the roots. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 267 

does not injure the wheat. Red clover is also often sown in 
the spring with oats as a nurse crop. 

Another common method of seeding red clover is in 
a field of standing corn just following the last cultivation. 
This plan has worked successfully, especially in some of 
the eastern and southern states. If the crop of corn is 
heavy enough to shade the ground, or if the fall happens to 
be dry, a successful stand is uncertain. 

Time of sowing. — In the larger part of the red-clover 
region, it does not seem to matter greatly whether the 
clover is sown in the spring or the fall. Which time is better 
depends on the season. Young clover plants do not easily 
withstand drought. If a dry season follows the seeding, the 
stand will not succeed no matter when the planting is done. 

In spring seeding with a nurse crop of winter wheat, the 
clover should be sown at the earliest possible moment. If 
the ground is not to be harrowed to cover the seed, it may 
be sown on a late fall of snow. This gives the clover plants 
the advantage of a start before the moisture is out of the 
soil, and also before the nurse crop gets large enough to 
shade the young plants. 

If the seeding is done in the fall, the crop should be 
sown early enough so that the clover plants will attain a 
growth of from four to six inches before the freezing 
weather. Otherwise they may not be able to live through 
the winter, especially in the northern states. Seeding after 
August fifteenth is unsafe in the northern states. 

Clover seed. — A great deal of the trouble found in 
securing a good stand of red clover comes from poor seed. 



268 



AGRTCI^LTIT"RE AND 



Good red-clover seed should (1) be plump, and not shriv- 
eled; (2) look bright instead of dull; (3) vary in color 



%»> c 



1^ 



_ l\et\ duvet' TvefoW 



m 



CurUi<iocH 



d 



4 ,' ,5l.un\\>> 6V\i\\d 



«fe7 






^rk 



^2%H-iM, 



:ji} 




10 \\(,vV\cvvy 11 - 



Seeds of red clover find many of the 
common impurities. 

from violet to light yellow, but not be a dull brown; (4) 
show individual seeds medium to large size; (5) be free 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 269 

from all weed seed and rubbish; (6) be free from what 
is called "hard" seed. By hard seed is meant grains whose 
seed coat is such that the seed absorbs moisture but slowly, 
hence may not germinate for several weeks or even 
months. The seed of very new varieties may contain as 
much as fifty to sixty per cent, of hard seed. 

As is the case with most other farm crops, it is safer to 
secure clover seed from near home than from a distance. 
In this way one may be sure that the variety is adapted 
to the season, climate and soil conditions of the vicinity, 
and be sure that the seed does not contain noxious weeds 
and other impurities. 

Cleaning red-clover seed. — Ordinary red-clover seed 
contains many different kinds of weed seeds. Some of 
these look enough like clover grains that they may pass 
unnoticed. Sowing clover mixed with weeds not only 
reduces the stand of clover, but compels the clover to divide 
its moisture and food with its worst enemies, besides ren- 
dering the ground foul for other crops. 

Screening red-clover seed through a sieve with twenty 
meshes to the inch will remove all the smaller weed seeds, 
while retaining the medium-sized and larger clover grains. 
Seeds of wild carrot, ragweed, thistles, buckthorn, wild 
chickory, and several other weeds bearing large seeds are 
not removed in this way. Clover seed should first of all 
be selected from a field that is as free as possible from 
weeds. Even then, screening will pay for the removal of 
the smaller clover and weed seeds. 



270 AGRICULTURE AND 

Harvesting the Red-Clover Crop 

Red clover should be cut for hay just as it is past full 
bloom. If cut much earlier than this the entire food value 
of the plant is not obtained; if it is allowed to stand too 
long the leaves begin to fall, and the stems become dry 
and stiff. If the second crop is to be cut for seed, it may 
be necessary to cut the first somewhat early. 

The care of clover hay. — In stacking or mowing the 
hay in a barn, the important thing is to avoid exposure to 
the weather, or becoming dry enough so that the leaves 
crumble and are lost. For the leaves of red clover, while 
they are only about forty per cent, of the weight of the plant, 
contain almost two-thirds of the protein of the whole plant. 
Clover hay that has become too dry is also very dusty, and 
not so good for feed. 

Red-clover hay does not shed rain so well as the grass 
hays, and should therefore be stored in a barn where pos- 
sible. If it must be put into stacks, these should be built 
with the greatest care, keeping the middle of the stack full 
and well tramped. The top should be covered with 
canvas, or with a coating of grass or straw. 

Care must be taken not to put red clover into the barn or 
stack when it is damp from dew or rain, as it has a tend- 
ency to heat. This heating not only damages the hay, 
but not infrequently sets fire to the stack or barn and burns 
it down. 

Harvesting red-clover for seed. — Red-clover seed is 
usually secured from the second crop of the season, the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



271 



first being harvested for hay. The clover is cut either with 
a mower or a special header, and run through a clover 
huller. By special adjustment an ordinary thrashing ma- 
chine may be used for hulling the seed. Clover straw still 
possesses good feeding value after the seed is removed. 



1 




Second crop of red clover nearly ready to cut for seed. The 
first crop yielded two and one-half tons to the acre. 



The Enemies of Red Clover 

In the starting of the clover crop, the two principal ene- 
mies to be encountered are drought and hard winters. A 
stand not infrequently fails from one or the other of these 
natural causes, which can not be guarded against, except to 
sow the crop at proper times, and according to proper meth- 
ods of seeding. Red clover is so valuable, however, that 
an occasional failure to secure a stand should only spur 
the farmer to try for better success. 



272 AGRICULTURE AND 

Insect enemies. — -Various Insects seem to find red 
clover highly palatable, and hence feed upon it. Yet only 
a few of these do the crop any great damage. 

One of the worst of these pests is a small species of 
beetle known as the clover root-borer. This beetle is of a 
brownish color, and grows about one-sixth of an inch in 
length. The larvae of this insect attack the roots of the 



Effect on clover seed of Stages iu developmeut of red-clover 
tlie clicilcis fly. seed: (a) flower; (b) immature 

seed vessel ; ( c ) flower ripe ; ( d ) ma- 
ture seed, vessel; (e) seed. 

clover, usually during the second year of the crop. They 
have done the most damage in regions east of the Alissis- 
sippi River, especially in Michigan, Indiana and Ohio. The 
only remedy so far found is to plow the damaged field as 
soon as the hay is removed. The larvae are then without 
food and soon die, leaving the field free of their kind for 
a future crop. 

The seed-bearing qualities of red clover are often seri- 
ously damaged by the clover-seed chalets fly. This is an 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 273 

insect shaped like a wasp, and about the size of a seed of 
red clover. Just before the clover seed begins to harden 
this fly lays its eggs in the growing seed. As the larvae 
develop they use the seed for food, entirely destroying it by 
the time they secure their growth. The chalcis fly is respon- 
sible for much of the poor yield of clover seed. It is one 
of the worst clover crop pests in the United States. It is 
thought that light pasturing in the early spring, or even 
mowing the clover soon after it starts will do much to reduce 
the danger. 

Clover has at least one enemy that works after the 
crop is stacked or mowed ; this is the clover-hay zvorm>. It 
usually works in the bottom of the stack or mow, eating 
the softer portions of the plant, but also damaging the 
feeding qualities of the hay by its excrement and a web 
that it leaves. Salting the hay near the bottom of the 
stack or mow will do much toward stopping the work of 
this pest. 

While the botanists tell us that red clover is a perennial, 
it is seldom able to maintain a stand for more than three 
or four years, when it must be reseeded. Red clover is 
usually followed by a grain crop before clover is again 
grown. 

Other Types of Clover 

White clover. — White clover is well know'n over most 
of the red-clover region. It differs in its manner of growth 
from red clover, being of a creeping habit, and therefore 
not well adapted to use as a hay crop. White clover is 
very hardy, and will often work its way into a pasture with- 



274 AGRICULTURE AND 

out seeding, the seeds being carried by winds and the birds. 
It makes an excellent pasture grass, and is also often used 
in lawn mixtures. 

Alsike clover. — Alsike clover is named from a town 
in Sweden, where it is said to have originated. It resem- 
bles red clover but is of a finer, more delicate type, and 
therefore does not yield so well. While red clover will 
produce two crops each season, alsike clover will grow 
but one. This clover is especially suited to wet heavy soil 
which will not grow red clover, and in such regions proves 
a valuable crop. 

Japan clover. — Japan clover, or lespedeza, comes 
from Asia, and was first noticed in this country in 1846. 
It has now spread so that it is to be found throughout the 
southeastern portion of the United States. Over most of 
this region it has been used chiefly for grazing, though in 
southern Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, IMississippi and 
Alabama it is cut for hay. Lespedeza will grow on almost 
every type of soil, including the pine barrens and gravelly 
wastes where other grasses fail. It has great feeding value, 
is highly palatable to live stock, will thrive under even most 
adverse conditions and will stand grazing well. 

Crimson clover. — Crimson clover is to the southeast- 
ern portion of the United States what red clover is to the 
central regions. It has remarkable value as a soil renewer. 
It makes its growth during the fall and early spring and is 
ready for grazing long before most other grasses are avail- 
able. Its feeding value is nearly equal to that of alfalfa, 
and it is highly palatable to farm animals. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



275 




S'.VL't't clover ou au Iowa farm. 



276 AGRICULTURE AND 

A severe handicap in the raising of crimson clover has 
been the expense and difficulty of securing seed. The plant 
is a vi^inter annual, and must be reseeded each year late in 
the fall. The seed has sold high, and from three to five 
million pounds have had to be imported each year to supply 
the demand. Various methods for collecting the seed more 
economically are being devised, and will in time make prac- 
ticable the securing of a sufficient amount for our use. 

Sweet clover. — The sweet clovers have been known 
for centuries, but only recently has their value been realized. 
The bitter taste of the foliage has kept sweet clover from 
being a favorite with farm animals. Yet it has been found 
by experiment that once animals are trained to eat it, it is as 
palatable as other kinds of forage and preferred before 
many. In feeding value it rivals alfalfa. Sweet clover is 
one of the best soil renewers known, and its large roots 
facilitate drainage and improve the tilth of the soils that lie 
below the reach of the plow. While sweet clover occurs as 
a weed along roadsides, it is not troublesome in cultivated 
fields except in irrigated regions of the West, where the 
seed is carried by the water. 



THE j'ARArrxr, business 277 



CHAPTER XVII 
ALFALFA 

A LTHOUGH alfalfa is a relatively new crop in most 
X \. parts of the United States, the plant is one of the 
oldest known to agriculture. Its original home seems to 
have been somewhere in the southwestern part of Asia, 
from which region it has spread to practically every part 
of the world where agriculture is pursued. The name, 
alfalfa, which comes to us from the Arabs, means "best 
fodder," and well describes the plant. In southern Eu- 
rope the plant was called "lucerne" and this was the name 
first used in the eastern part of the United States. The 
term alfalfa, is, however, now commonly used throughout 
this country. 

Alfalfa an old plant. — So old is alfalfa in agricul- 
ture that it was grown in Greece in the fifth century before 
Christ, having been carried there by the Persians. Italy 
grew alfalfa about the beginning of the Christian era. It 
was carried to Spain probably by the Moors in the eighth 
century. The Spaniards introduced it into Mexico and 
South America when they began their colonization in the 
New World. 

Alfalfa has been grown in the eastern part of the United 



278 



AGRICULTURE AND 



States for at least two hundred and fifty years, having 
been brought to that region from England about 1650. 

The Value of Alfalfa as a Forage Crop 
Alfalfa is the queen of forage crops. It has the high- 



\LFALF\ 




Comparison of coru and alfalfa roots, showing wliy alfalfa is a 
drought register. 

est feeding value for practically all farm animals of any 
forage plant practicable to agriculture. It can be fed to all 
classes of farm stock, either green, as ensilage, or seasoned 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 279 

as hay. Like clover, alfalfa contains a high degree of that 
most important element in the ration of all animals, protein, 
which goes to make both bone and muscle. With such 
forage as timothy, corn stover, or straw fed to stock, pro- 
tein must be supplied in the form of bran or some other 
such feed. Alfalfa serves the same purpose, and it 
is much cheaper to produce than are these special protein 
foods. 

Feeding value of alfalfa. — The following table shows 
the feeding value of eight dififerent kinds of feed, based 
on the digestible nutrient material in each : (Fanner's' Bul- 
letin, 339. These figures are only relative, since prices vary 
from year to year.) 

Value Value 

Feed per ton Feed per ton 

Green alfalfa $7.00 Timothy hay $9.00 

Green clover 5.96 Cow-pea hay 19.76 

Alfalfa hay 20.16 Wheat bran 22.80 

Clover hay 14.12 Shelled corn 20.16 

It is seen that the feeding value of alfalfa hay is more 
than double that of timothy. It is almost equal to wheat 
bran, and just equal to shelled corn. Alfalfa has an addi- 
tional value for feeding stock because it is highly palatable 
to almost every farm animal, even to poultry and hogs. 

Bran costs an average of over twenty dollars a ton; 
to raise alfalfa hay costs an average of about five dollars a 
ton. \\'hy not grozv the protein needed by the farm animals 
instead of buying it? As farmers learn more of the value 
of alfalfa this is what they will do. 



280 AGRICULTURE AND 

Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds. 

Pounds 

Cured Hay Pounds carbohy- Pounds 

protein drates fat 

Alfalfa 11.7 40. 1.0 

Red clover 7.1 37.8 1.8 

Alsike clover 8.4 39.7 1.1 

Mixed grasses 4.2 42.0 1.3 

Timothy 2.8 42.4 1.3 

Orchard grass 4.9 42.4 1.4 

Redtop 4.8 46.9 1.0 

Kentucky blue-grass 4.4 40.2 0.7 

Barley hay 5.7 43.6 1.0 

Oat hay 4.7 36.7 1.7 

Fodder corn 2.5 34.6 1.2 

Corn stover 1.4 31.2 0.7 

(Wis. Exp. Sta.) 

Alfalfa and milk production. — The production of milk 
from dairy cows requires a high protein ration in order to 
get most profitable results. Tests made by the Tennessee 
Agricultural Experiment Station show that with alfalfa hay 
at ten dollars a ton and wheat bran at twenty dollars, a 
saving of two dollars and eighty cents for every one hun- 
dred pounds of butter, and two dollars for every thousand 
pounds of milk can be effected by substituting alfalfa for 
bran. A similar proportion of saving can be efifecfed 
through using alfalfa as forage for the fattening of beef 
cattle. Alfalfa either green or in the form of hay has been 
found equally valuable as food for sheep, hogs, horses and 
poultry. 

"There is no other combination of feeds so economical 
for the production of beef, pork, butter, and eggs, and for 
growing animals as corn and alfalfa. Neither will give 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 281 

the best results alone. We need alfalfa because It balances 
up the corn ration and saves the large waste of starch 
which always takes place where corn is fed alone. We 
need alfalfa because we can in this way grow on our own 
farms the protein more profitably than we can buy it as 
feed stuffs. We need alfalfa because it feeds the soil and 
enables us to grow larger crops of corn and oats. We 
need alfalfa because it produces on an average double 
the feed value per acre of clover or any other forage 
crop." — (Holden.) 

Alfalfa As a Rcnezver of the Soil 

Alfalfa is the best of the legumes as a renewer and con- 
server of the soil. The alfalfa plant lias a most generous 
system of roots which commonly penetrate to a depth of 
from four or ten feet and, in the case of older plants and 
under favorable conditions, to a depth of twenty feet. 
Millions upon millions of nitrifying bacteria make their 
homes in the tubercles of the root system of one plant. 
Through the action of these bacteria, nitrogen is taken 
directly from the air and added to the soil in such form 
that it can be used by other crops. Since nitrogen is one 
of the soil elements first to become exhausted in most soils, 
it is clear that the productron of alfalfa can do much to 
reclaim worn-out soils. 

How alfalfa helps the soil. — The deep rooting system 
of the alfalfa plant also enables it to bring other minerals 
from the lower layer of the soil, and deposit them near the 
surface where other plants can use them. The roots upon 



282 AGRICULTURE AND 

decaying add much organic matter to the soil in the form 
of humus. The abundant roots also increase the porosity 
of the soil and so favor drainage and the introduction of 
air to the roots of growing plants. 

One alfalfa enthusiast testifies as follows with reference 
to its value : "This wonder plant is to revolutionize agricul- 
ture, country life, the country school, the country church, 
and the country and village social life at a no far-distant 
day. It will transform the poor, hilly and clay wastes into 
fields rich in plant-food. It will enable the tenant to become 
the land-owner. It drills into the earth and reaches up into 
the air and sunshine for food which it transmutes into cash 
to enrich its fortunate owner. It toils on, day and night, 
winter and summer, to bring earth's hidden treasures to 
light and pour them into the lap of man. No other plant 
performs such enormous labors for the same length of time 
for the human race." 

The Returns from Alfalfa 

Under favorable conditions the return from alfalfa is 
probably greater than that from any other forage crop. 
This is from the fact that it is a perennial plant, enduring 
for many years without reseeding, and that it produces a 
high yield per acre of forage, exceedingly rich, as we have 
already seen, in nutritive value. One Illinois alfalfa grower 
testifies that his income from an acre of alfalfa is as great 
as from six acres of timothy and that he is obtaining three 
times as much profit from his acreage of alfalfa as from 
the same amount in corn. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 283 

Profits from alfalfa. — It has been found by the Wis- 
consin Agricultural Experiment Station that the weight of 
green forage per acre obtained for the season from alfalfa 
in that state is approximately double that of clover, three 
times the weight of timothy and five times the weight of 
brome grass. The proportions for hay are approximately 
the same as for the green forage. In another form of com- 
parison, alfalfa yields three times as much protein per acre 
as clover, nine times as much protein as timothy, and twelve 
times as much protein as brome grass. 

Alfalfa will produce from two to six or more cuttings 
per season, depending on the character of the soil, the cli- 
mate and the amount of moisture available for the crop. 
The yield in dry hay per acre will run from two to nine 
or more tons each season. Since the feeding value of 
alfalfa is approximately that of wheat bran, which costs 
twenty dollars a ton, it is seen that the gross income per 
acre may run from forty to nearly two hundred dollars. 
The farmer who objected to alfalfa as a farm crop "because 
it had to be cut so often" had not figured closely on the 
profits to be obtained. 

Where Alfalfa Can Be Grown 

The adaptability of alfalfa to widely varying conditions 
is shown by the fact that it will thrive in almost every 
climate and in practically all types of soil in the United 
States. It is the staple leguminous forage crop throughout 
the western half of the country at the present time, and is 
being rapidly introduced in almost every part of the United 



284 



AGRICULTURE AND 



States. Alfalfa is grown several hundred feet below the 
sea level in the southern part of California, and at altitudes 
exceeding eight thousand feet in Colorado. Under irriga- 
tion it yields bounteous crops in the deserts of Arizona, 
which contain some of the hottest regions in the world. 
Hardy strains have been developed which are able to with- 
stand the severe winters of the northern part of the United 
States, and some areas in Canada. It is successfully grown 
without irrigation in some of the semi-arid regions where 
the rainfall reaches not more than fourteen inches a year. 



ESSENTIAL POINTS <M 
GROWING ALFALFA 

WELL DRAINED SWEET SOIL 

RtCH FERTILE SOIL 

WELL PREPARED RRM SE£0 9E0 

CLEAN GROUND FREE FROM WEEDS 

INOCULATION 

CUT WHEN NEW SHOOTS START 



aTH ER THINGS THAT WILL H ELP 

LIME 

STRONG CLEAN SEED 

HAY CAPS 

HARROWING AFTER CUTTING 

SEEDING BOTH WAYS 

SALTING THE HAY 

PHOSPHORUS xao «.0SPH«n «o« «u 

LEAVE FALL GROWTH 

FOR WINTER PROTECTION 



OONT 
DO^^r 
DONT 

DONT 

OONT 

DONT 
DONT 



ALFALFA OONTS 

SOW ON SOUR WET GROUND 
SOW ON WEEDY FOUL GROUNO 
SOW ON 

LOOSE PLOWED GROUND 
EXPOSE INOCUUTION 

rO THE SUN 
BE AFRAID TO CULTIVATE 

ALFALFA 
WAIT TOO LONG TO CUT 
PASTURE TOO CLOSE 



It has also prospered in the Gulf states where the annual 
rainfall reaches from sixty to seventy inches. 

Conditions favorable to alfalfa. — Experience shows 
that abundant sunshine, a fair amount of warmth and a 
deep rich soil supply the best conditions for the growth of 
the alfalfa crop. These conditions are easily obtainable in 
the West especially, and there is probably little cultivatable 
land in the entire western region upon which alfalfa can not 
profitably be grown. 

We have as yet not fully appreciated the possibilities of 
alfalfa as a farm crop. At present barely one-tenth as many 
acres are devoted to alfalfa as to clover and timothy, and 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 285 

one-ninth as many as are put in wheat. We have twenty 
acres in corn to every acre of alfalfa. Yet the amount of 
land devoted to alfalfa is increasing with every year and it 
will soon become one of our principal forage crops. Its 
growth can be profitably extended in almost every region 
of the country, particularly through the great corn belt 
states, which are admirably adapted to its production, and 
in many regions of the South, where it is needed as a soil 
renewer and can be used in the long term of crop rotation. 

Raising the Crop 

Soil requirements for alfalfa. — It is especially im- 
portant in raising alfalfa that soil naturally wet shall be 
well drained. While alfalfa requires a reasonable amount 
of moisture in growing, it will not stand the dampness of 
undrained soils. If submerged -with water it will quickly 
die. 

In heavy damp soil there is also likely to be more acid 
than is good for the alfalfa plant. Before sowing alfalfa it 
is, therefore, best to test the soil for acid. This can easily 
be done by taking a little of the soil when damp and plac- 
ing it upon blue litmus paper (or by some of the other 
methods recommended by state experiment stations). If 
the paper turns to a pink color it indicates the presence of 
acid, and the soil should then have an application of litne 
to counteract the acid. 

Starting alfalfa. — If proper methods are used it should 
be no harder to start alfalfa than clover. First of all, the 
seed must be most carefully selected, and should be tested 



286 AGRICULTURE AND 

before sowing. This can easily be done by means of a 
home-made tester, as in the case of clover. 

Particularly should the seed be free from all noxious 
weeds or other impurities. For weeds are among the worst 
enemies of alfalfa. In some parts of the country the alfalfa 



School children in Cook County, Illinois, studying the relation 
of alfalfa to corn growing. Extension Agent Farr in charge. 



crop is completely killed out of certain fields in a few years 
by the increase of weeds. 

The seed bed should be more carefully prepared than 
for almost any other farm crop. After plowing it must 
be harrowed so thoroughly as to pack it well and leave a 
fine mulch on top. If the seed bed can be prepared some 
time ahead of the sowing so as to give an opportunty for 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 287 

several harrowings so much the better. The seeding may 
be done either broadcast or with a drill It has been found 
best in most parts of the country not to sow alfalfa with a 
nurse crop, since the nurse crop deprives the young alfalfa 
plants of moisture, nourishment and light. It is of great 
advantage to manure the field before seeding to alfalfa. 

Inoculating the soil. — It is usually best to inoculate 
the soil before sowing alfalfa. This means to put into the 
soil some of the bacteria which inhabit the root nodules. 
Almost any soil suitable for alfalfa has some of these bac- 
teria to begin with, so that alfalfa may often be started 
without inoculation. But where the supply of bacteria is 
very small, and where the soil is poor it will pay to inocu- 
late. This may easily be accomplished by gathering the sur- 
face soil from a field on which alfalfa has been raised, and 
scattering it at the rate of one hundred to five hundred 
pounds to the acre over the field to be sown. 

Similar results can be had by gathering soil in which 
sweet clover so commonly found along the roadsides has 
been growing. Care must be taken in gathering and scat- 
tering the soil not to allow it to be exposed to sunlight, as 
this will kill the bacteria. It is better therefore to secure 
the soil and spread it over the new field on cloudy days 
or in the late evening. The alfalfa seed should be sown 
immediately and harrowed in so that the bacteria may be 
covered, and be thus secure from the sunlight. 

Time for seeding. — Late summer has been found the 
best time for seeding alfalfa in the East and the South, while 
in the West spring seeding is the rule. Spring seeding has 



288 



AGRICULTURE AND 



also been found to work better in Minnesota, Wisconsin 
and the Dakotas. No general rule as to the time of seed- 





Au alfalia ijiaut several years old. Note the generous root 
system and the size of the plant. 

ing can, however, be given. IMuch will depend on the cli- 
mate, length of season and amount of rainfall or irrigation 
water available. The chief thing necessary is to seed as 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 289 

long as possible before the time of year that will be hardest 
on the plants. In the North this requires spring or early 
summer seeding in order that the plants may get sufficient 
growth before freezing to withstand the winter. Alfalfa 
plants less than six inches high do not ordinarily live well 
through the hard northern winters 

In some regions there is trouble in getting the plants 
started before drought comes on to check their growth. 
Throughout the corn belt late summer seeding should us- 
ually be practised. Alfalfa sown during August and the 
first week of September will have the best chance through- 
out this region. 

Harvesting the Crop 

Time for cutting. — Alfalfa makes the best hay if cut 
while in early bloom. A better means of determining the 
time for cutting is, however, to watch the start of the new 
shoots from the base of the plant. These shoots make the 
growth for the succeeding crop. When they are from one 
to two inches in length is the best time to harvest. In this 
way the new growth goes on without interruption. 

If the cutting takes place much earlier than this, there 
is a loss of growing time in waiting for the new shoots to 
develop. If, on the other hand, the cutting is delayed until 
these shoots are too long, the mower will clip them off and 
they must begin all over again, thus delaying the next crop. 
Usually it is possible to secure three cuttings of alfalfa in 
the corn region and as many as eight and even more in 
some of the irrigated regions of the West. It is evident 



290 



AGRICULTURE AXD 



that if the greatest number of cuttings is to be secured 
each crop must be cut as soon as it is ready in order to let 
the next crop get properly started. 

Handling the hay. — Alfalfa, like clover, should be 
harvested so that the hay may reach the barn or stack with 
the least possible amount of handling or exposure to the 
weather. The alfalfa leaves contain a large proportion of 




Side ck'livory raktT m :.ii 
the acre on second cutting. 



.li.Lliu iiukl, yieldiui 



iwu Lu'U.:, to 



the food value of the plant, and are easily crumbled and 
lost if the hay gets too dry. 

Probably the best plan is to cock the hay when the stems 
are about half dry, stacking it when moisture no longer 
shows as a wisp of the plant is twisted by the fingers. In 
regions where frequent rains are the rule during the hay- 
ing season, it pays to have haycock covers consisting of 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



291 




A six-weeks-olcl liekl of alfalfa in 2soith Dakota 




Alfalfa curing uuder cover. 



292 AGRICULTURE AND 

squares of muslin to the corners of which weights are at- 
tached, or pins to thrust into the hay or the ground. 

Enemies of Alfalfa 

Weed enemies. — Undoubtedly weeds are the worst 
enemies of alfalfa in most parts of the country. This is 
particularly true throughout the West and Southwest. 
Among the weed enemies are witch-grass, crab-grass and 
dodder in the West, blue-grass and foxtail throughout the 
Middle West, crab-grass, zmld clover, dandelions, etc., in 
the South and East, wild clover, crab-grass, ordinary 
weeds and the barleys in the far West. Cultivation with 
the spring-tooth harrow or disk is the best means of kill- 
ing most of the weeds. 

An especially troublesome weed among alfalfa is dodder. 
Dodder is a plant which twines itself about the alfalfa seed- 
lings, soon attaching its threadlike stems firmly to the 
alfalfa plant. The dodder stem then withers away near 
the ground and the dodder continues to live as a parasite 
on the alfalfa. It is almost impossible to exterminate dodder 
when it has once secured a foothold in an alfalfa field. 
Turning sheep into the field to graze is one remedy for this 
pest. Another is to cut the alfalfa very low or even remove 
it entirely on any spots in the field where dodder starts. 

Insect enemies. — Alfalfa does not have so wide a 
range of insect enemies as some of the other farm plants. 
The alfalfa weevil and grasshoppers are probably the worst 
enemies of this kind, particularly in the regions of the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 293 

West. It has been found that disking an alfalfa field late 
in the fall in the northern states and mid-winter in east 
central states exposes the weevil and grasshopper young to 
freezing and the attacks of birds, and thus reduces their 
number. 



294 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XVIII 
OTHER LEGUMES 

WHILE the clovers and alfalfa are the most important 
leguminous plants for large portions of the United 
States, there are several other legumes that deserve atten- 
tion. Chief among these are the coiu-peOj grown chiefly in 
the South; the vetches, the soy-bean, the peanut, field beans 
and peas, and several others of lesser importance. These 
are produced (1) for forage, (2) for soil renovation, and 
(3) for their seeds. 

The Cozv-pea 

The cow-pea is to the South what red clover and alfalfa 
are to the West and North. It grows successfully on almost 
any kind of soil found in the cotton belt, and its cultiva- 
tion is being rapidly extended throughout this region. 

The plant. — The cow-pea was but recently introduced 
into this country, coming from China. The plant resem- 
bles the ordinary garden bean in appearance and manner of 
growth. It reaches a height of from one to nearly five 
feet. The smaller varieties stand nearly erect, the taller 
varieties spreading out vine-like on the ground. 

The leaves are broad, and grow in clusters of three. 
The flowers resemble those of the garden pea, and are 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



295 




_J 



The cow-pea. 



296 AGRICULTURE AND 

greenish-yellow in color. The pods, which are cylindrical 
in shape, grow from two to some seven inches in length. 
The roots, which penetrate deeply into the soil, bear tuber- 
cles, which are the home of nitrogen-gathering bacteria. 

Cow-peas as forage. — Cow-peas, when harvested for 
hay, yield from two to three tons to the acre. The feed- 
ing value of cow-pea hay is fully equal to that of red clover, 
and nearly equal to alfalfa or wheat bran. It has been 
found a better forage feed for working animals in the South 
than grass hay. It is rich in protein, and therefore an ac- 
ceptable substitute for corn or cottonseed-meal in the fat- 
tening of stock. 

Since the cow-pea is an annual, it does not lend itself to 
the making of permanent meadows or pastures as does 
alfalfa. Cow-peas sowed in corn are profitably used as pas- 
turage for hogs, the gain in weight being in some cases 
more than twice as fast with a mixed feed of cow-peas and 
corn as when corn alone is fed. Cattle also do well on a 
pasturage of cow-peas. Bloating is likely to occur, how- 
ever, if grazing is allowed when the cow-peas are wet. 

The cow-pea as a soil renovator. — The cow-pea im- 
proves the soil in two ways: (1) like other legumes, it is 
able through its root bacteria to gather nitrogen from the 
air and transfer it to the soil ; and (2) its many roots, 
coarse stubble and stems, especially when the latter are 
plowed under as green manure, add much humus to the 
soil, making It more porous. 

In many parts of the South cow-peas are coming to be 
largely used in crop rotation, with cotton the principal crop. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 297 

The field is planted with cotton either two or three years in 
succession, then a crop of corn and cow-peas grown, and 
then a return to cotton. In ]\Iissouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, 
Alabama and other states of this region, cow-peas are being 
successfully used in rotation with wheat and oats. An in- 
crease of from fifty to more than one hundred per cent, in 
other crops following cow-peas is not uncommon. . 

The Vetches 

The vetches are another group of legumes, grown most 
extensively on the Pacific Coast, less commonly in the 
South, where their culture is rapidly increasing, and hardly 
at all in the North. Michigan, however, has made some 
excellent hairy vetch crop records. Although more than 
one hundred dififerent varieties of vetch are known, but 
two are commonly grown in the United States, common 
vetch and hairy vetch. 

Common vetch. — Common vetch is an annual, closely 
resembling the garden pea. Its stems are very slender, and 
^row from three to five feet or more in length. There are 
many different varieties of common vetch, of which the 
gray-seeded is most commonly grown in this country. 

Low temperatures are fatal to common vetch ; it can not 
be successfully raised in regions where the thermometer 
goes lower than about fifteen degrees Fahrenheit. 

Hairy Vetch. — Hairy vetch is much more hardy than 
common vetch, and may be raised in almost any portion 
of the United States. It finds its greatest use in supplying 
a legume for forage and improving the soil where red clover 



298 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Hairy vetcli. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 299 

or alfalfa does not succeed, or where a short rotation crop 
is desired. 

Hairy vetch has great power to resist drought, and does 
well on a sandy soil. It will also thrive on a soil so alkaline 
that most legumes refuse to grow on it. 

Vetches are weak of stem and are usually planted with 
enough small grain to make about half a stand. This gives 
them the support they demand. Sixty pounds of common 
vetch seed are required per acre, and forty pounds of hairy 
vetch. In most regions it is necessary to inoculate the soil 
where vetch is being planted for the first time. It is best 
to inoculate from fields where vetch has been growing, 
rather then from a field that has produced other legumes. 

Soy-Beans 

Soy-beans are native to Asia, where they have been 
grown from time immemorial. In China, India and Japan, 
some two hundred varieties are cultivated for human food, 
furnishing a staple article of diet in many regions. They 
have not proved palatable to Americans, however, and are 
raised in this country chiefly as one of our forage crops. 

Where red clover or alfalfa can be successfully grown, 
soy-beans will have little place, since they are less profitable. 
They are especially adapted to the cotton belt, however, 
and to the southern portion of the corn belt. Since soy- 
beans are drought resistant, they also grow well in the semi- 
arid regions of the West. They have as yet made little 
headway as a crop in this region because of the ravages of 
the rabbits, which find their foliage a savory delicacy. 



300 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Eoot of a soy-beiiu, sliowiug bucteria-iulaabited tubercles. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 301 

Feeding value. — The soy-bean has as great feeding 
value for stock as alfalfa, and is worth more than cotton- 
seed-meal as a food for hogs, sheep and cattle. The straw, 
after all the grain has been removed, is as valuable as tim- 
othy hay, and even more palatable to most farm animals. 

The Peanut 

It is not definitely known when and where the peanut 
originated but probably in the tropics of South America. 
The first peanuts were grown in the United States during 
colonial times, but the crop was of no commercial import- 
ance until about 1870. The use of peanuts has steadily in- 
creased, and the value of the crop is now in the neighbor- 
hood of fifteen million dollars annually. Peanuts will grow 
successfully throughout the southern half of the United 
States and in some of our island possessions. 

The plant. — The peanut plant produces vines from 
one to two and one-half feet in length. It has rather small 
leaves growing three in a cluster. After flowering, the stem 
penetrates into the soil. The pods and nuts are produced 
beneath the surface. Like other legumes, the plant is a good 
nitrogen gatherer, and hence helps in soil renovation. Pea- 
nut hay is valuable for roughage and relished by most farm 
animals. 

When the crop is ripe the roots are cut ofif under the 
ground by a plow, potato digger or some specially con- 
structed device. The vines are then gathered, with the nuts 
clinging to them, dried and the nuts picked ofif. The nuts 



303 



AGRICULTURE AND 



intended for roasting and selling in the shell by vending 
must go through a special cleaning process. 

Uses of the peanut. — The uses to which the peanut 
is put are constantly increasing. It is eaten from the shell ; 
it is shelled, salted and sold by the pound; it is used in 
making various kinds of candies and brittle ; it is ground 
up into peanut butter; it forms one of the ingredients of 




Intercroping velvet bean with com. 



"vegetable meats"; it is used in salad oils, and in various 
other ways. The cleanings and inferior stock are valuable 
as food for live stock. Some of the famous smoked hams 
and bacon come from hogs that are fed partly on peanuts. 
The peanut is increasing in importance as a farm crop 
in the South. In many sections where clover or other 
legumes do not well withstand the heat and drought of the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 303 

summer months, the peanut will thrive admirably. A crop 
of peanuts can be grown following oats or other spring 
crop, the tops used for hay and the hogs then turned in to 
root out the nuts. In several of the Gulf states the peanut 
is commonly planted between the corn rows when the corn 
is cultivated for the last time. After the corn crop is gath- 
ered, cattle are turned in to feed on the vines, and after 
them hogs to gather the nuts. In this way the full value of 
the crop as forage is secured, and most of the nitrogen 
gathered by the roots is stored in the soil. 



304 



AGRICULTURE AND 



CHArTER XIX 
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 

THE plan of every farm, village or suburban home 
should include a good vegetable garden to supply the 
table. Not only are vegetables a highly necessary food, 
but they are much more palatable when taken from the 




A city boy in his garden, gathering and preparing veg- 
etables for the table and market. 

garden fresh as needed instead of bought in a market. 
Nor is a well stocked market easily available to most of 
our homes. Hence, unless the home raises its own supply 
of vegetables, those who surround the table are likely to 
suffer from lack of variety and the absence of certain food 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 305 

qualities required for health. Without vegetables the table 
is also more expensive because of requiring more of the 
high priced foods such as meats and bread. 

The vegetable garden can be made the most profitable 
part of a farm. Half an acre of ground planted to a suit- 
able variety of garden crop will, if properly cared for, yield 
over one hundred dollars' worth of vegetables each season 
for the family table. This is from ten to twenty times 
what the same amount of ground in farm crops will pro- 
duce. Although the garden requires considerable attention, 
the labor demanded is not great compared with the returns 
in profits, good health and human efficiency. 

Location and Soil 

The location. — There is a double advantage in having 
the vegetable garden near the house : the vegetables can 
then be taken from the soil as needed, without loss of 
time ; and spare moments free from other work or chores 
can be given to the care of the garden. Where the soil is 
suitable it is best to have the garden only a few rods from 
the kitchen door. 

The soil. — Most vegetables require a well drained 
soil. Ground on which the water stands after a rain is not 
adapted to garden use. A slight slope to the south and 
east will favor the early maturing of the crops. 

Plan of the Vegetable Garden 

The vegetable garden should be carefully planned be- 
fore time to begin planting, and a diagram made allotting 
to each crop its location and proper amount of space. This 



306 



AGRICULTURE AND 



will save time in putting in the crop and insure a better 
arrangement. 

The plan. — A well-planned garden provides (1) for a 
succession of crops supplying the table with fresh vegetables 
practically all the year, and by means of cold storage and 
home canning, fresh vegetables may be available through- 




Marketing his crops. 

out the zvmter, as well as during the spring and summer. 
This can be accomplished by selecting a reasonably wide 
range of crops and by successive plantings of certain kinds. 

(2) The right proportion of space should be allowed 
for each vegetable, depending on the tastes of the family 
and allowing for the canning of a supply for home use. As 
a result of careless planning an over-supply of one vegeta- 
tle often results in loss and waste. 

(3) The crops should be arranged in the order of their 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 307 

time of planting, so that the planting can begin at one side 
of the garden in the early spring, and proceed across until 
all are in. This arrangement saves much labor in culti- 
vation without interfering with crops already planted. 

(4) If the cultivation Is to be done with horse imple- 
ments, as it should be in all larger gardens, the rows should 
run the long way, and a turf turning ground be left at each 
end. It also pays to place in each row plants that re- 
quire the same kind of cultivation and that mature in about 
the same time so that together they will get out of the 
way of later plantings. Spade or plow and re fertilize and 
plant all vacant space. Allow no Idle land even to the ex- 
tent of a square foot. 

The plan on the following page (see Farmers' Bulletin 
647) suggests how to carry on the principles stated In the 
text. These varieties will, of course, need to be modified 
to adapt them to the preferences of the family and to the 
soil and climate. 

Planting time and maturity. — The time required for 
growth and the date of planting the common garden vegeta- 
bles recommended by the United States Department of 
Agriculture are shown on page three hundred and nine. 

Culture of the Garden Crops 

]\Iost of the vegetables named can be raised without 
technical training. A few, however, must have special 
treatment If they are to succeed, and If there Is not suffi- 
cient time to give them extra attention they might better 
be left out of the garden plan. 



308 



AGRICULTURE AND 
_ O// 






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II 












1^1 



^^2 

p^ 

J?^' 



4^^ 



pr;?) 






0'Cij!:;'«<D«5 



^ >^ fi r^ c\ 






is 

is 

I 









THE FARMING BUSINESS 



309 



Kind of 

Vegetable 

Asparagus 

Beans, bush 

Beans, pole 
Beets 

Brussels sprouts 
Cabbage, early- 
Cabbage, late 
Carrots 
Cauliflower 
Celery- 
Corn, sweet 
Cucumbers 
Dasheen 
Eggplant 
French endive 
Horseradish 
Lettuce 

Melon, muskmelon 
Melon, watermelon 
Onions, seed 
Onion, sets 
Peas 

Peppers (all) 
Potatoes, Irish 
Pumpkins 
Radishes 
Rhubarb, plants 
Salsify- 
Squash, bush 
Squash, late 
Swiss chard 
Tomatoes 
Turnips 

Chinese cabbage 
Fennel 



Time of rLAN-nNG Ready for use 

South 2soktii AixjiB planting 



Fall or early 

spring 
Feb. to Apr. 
(Aug. to Sept.) 
Late spring 
Feb. to Apr. 
(Aug. to Sept.) 
Jan. to July 
Oct. to Dec. 
June and July- 
Mar. Apr. Sept. 
Jan. Feb. June 
Aug. to Oct. 
Feb. to Apr. 
Feb. Mch. Sept. 
Mar, to Apr. 
Feb. to Apr. 
May to Oct, 
Early spring 
Sept. to Mar. 
Feb. to Apr. 
Mar. to May 
Oct. to Mar. 
Early spring 
Sept. to Apr. 
Early spring 
Jan. to Apr. 
April and May 
Sept. to Apr. 
Sept. to Apr. 
Sept. to Apr. 
Spring 
Spring 

Feb. to Apr. 
Dec. to Mar. 
Aug. to Oct. 
May to July 
May to July 



Early spring 1 to 3 years 

Apr. to July 40 to 65 days 



May and June 
Apr. to Aug. 

May and June 
Mar. and Apr. 
May and June 
Apr. to June 
Apr. to June 
May and June 
May to July 
Apr. to July 

Apr. and May 
May to June 
Early spring 
March to Sept. 
Apr. to June 
May and June 
Apr. and May 



50 to 80 days 
60 to 80 days 

90 to 120 days 
90 to 130 days 
90 to 130 days 
75 to 110 days 
100 to 130 days 
120 to 150 days 
60 to 100 days 
60 to 80 days 
140 to 180 days 
100 to 140 days 
100 to 130 days 
1 to 2 years 
60 to 90 days 
120 to 150 days 
100 to 120 days 
130 to 150 days 



Fall, Feb. to May90 to 120 days 
March to June 40 to SO days 



May and June 
March to June 
May to July 
March to Sept. 
Fall or spring 
Early spring 
April to June 
April to June 
Apr. to Aug. 
May and June 
April (July) 
March to Aug. 
March to Aug. 



100 to 140 days 
80 to 140 days 
100 to 140 days 
20 to 40 days 
1 to 3 years 
120 to 180 days 
60 to 80 days 
120 to 160 days 
60 to 80 days 
60 to 80 days 
100 to 140 day 
60 to 100 days 
60 to 100 days 



310 AGRICULTURE AND 

Garden crops requiring rich soil and much tillage. — 

Although the whole garden should be much richer than for 
the field crops, the following vegetables require an espe- 
cially rich sandy loam soil : cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels 
sprouts, eggplant, celery, onions, dasheen, French endive, 
Swiss chard and melons. Melons may have the hills well 
manured and the remainder of the area no richer than the 
rest of the garden. 

In general it may be said that the plants which demand 
a very rich soil also need a greater amount of tillage than 
the remainder of the garden. 

Vegetables that require transplanting. — The season 
required for certain vegetables to mature for the table is 
so long that in the North and Northwest they must be 
started in hotbeds in the latter part of the winter and 
transplanted when the weather is warm enough. The com- 
mon plants belonging to this group are cabbage, celery, 
cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, tomatoes, eggplant, pepper, 
sweet potato. Lettuce and muskmelons may also be trans- 
planted to good advantage. Many of these may also be 
transplanted to advantage in the South. 

The hotbed. — For small gardens the plants that are 
to be transplanted are often started in shallow boxes, egg 
shells, paper cups, or berry boxes. The more common 
method is, however, to use a hotbed. 

A hotbed is made as follows : Select a sunny place shel- 
tered by a building or fence from the north winds, and 
make a bed of coarse manure from the horse stalls eighteen 
inches deep, eight feet wide, and any multiple of three feet 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



311 




Typical dasliecu hill, a new vegetable 
potato for the South aud Southwest. 



substitute 



the 



312 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 313 

long. The manure must be fresh and contain a good 
amount of straw. Pack the bed well by thoroughly 
tramping. 

Place on top of the bed a board frame six feet wide, 
twelve inches high at the north edge and six inches at the 
south. The frame may be as long as required. After 
placing the frame in position, put in it a rich garden loam 
to the depth of three to six inches, packing and smoothing 
it well. Cover the frame with thirty-six-inch glazed sash. 

If the manure is in good condition it will begin heating 
almost at once, and will soon raise the temperature of the 
soil. Do not plant the seeds until the heating has been 
well tested and the temperature has begun to go down. 
This will be in about three days. The hotbed is now ready 
to receive the seed. 

In raising the hotbed crop care must be taken to lift 
the sasli during the warm part of bright days, and also 
to water sufficiently. Watering should be done in the 
morning on smmy days, otherwise the cooling may chill the 
plants. If the temperature grows too high the sash must 
be lifted, or the plants will be destroyed. 

Transplanting. — When the time comes for transplant- 
ing -to the open soil care must be used or the change may 
kill the tender plants or greatly check their growth. To 
avoid this, hotbed plants are often transplanted to another 
bed, called a cold-frame, covered with glass but not heated. 
This is known as the "hardening off" process. Transplant- 
ing almost any plant is of great advantage since it causes 
the multipHcation of many small roots which add to its 
growth. 



314 AGRICULTURE AND 

Vegetables that require special treatment. — The 

larger and later varieties of peas grow so high that they 
require support, so they will not spread out on the ground 
and the pods rot. Where an abundance of brush is avail- 
able, rods may be stuck in the ground for them to run on. 
Woven chicken wire is an excellent substitute and takes 
much less time. Lima beans also need poles. Because of 
this, bush varieties are sometimes grown in their stead. 

Celery and French endive, as well as most head lettuce 
varieties require bleaching to produce the best results. 
To accomplish this, the plants are usually set at the bot- 
tom of a trench which is gradually filled in as the plants 
grow ; or the outer leaves may be folded up and tied around 
the heart of the plant to shade it from the sun. At the end 
of the season the rows may be hilled up so that the plants 
are covered to the top. 

Insect Enemies of the Vegetable Garden 

Fortunately, most of the garden vegetables are not sub- 
ject to great injury from insects. Certain plants are, how- 
ever, special targets for these pests, and must be protected 
or they will almost certainly be destroyed. 

The most common enemy of cabbage and cauliflower is 
the cabbage-worm, which is the larvae of the common white 
butterfly seen about the cabbage patches. The most ef- 
fective remedy is spraying with the arsenate of lead prepa- 
ration, made by mixing three pounds of the paste with fifty 
gallons of water. To this should be added a mixture of 
resin and lime, or soap, to cause the insecticide to stick to 
the leaves. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



315 





The white grub : (A) pupa; (B) beetle; (C) larva. 



316 AGRICULTURE AND 

The cucumber beetle. — The worst enemy of cucum- 
bers is a small striped beetle which eats the leaves of the 
young plants. When only a few hills are raised they may 
be kept ofif the plants by making a small wooden frame 
over which is stretched wire mosquito netting, and plac- 
ing these boxes over the hills. These pests can also be 
controlled by spraying with the arsenate of lead compound. 
The roots of the plants are sometimes attacked by the 
larvae of the beetle. Tobacco dust sprinkled on the roots 
is an efifective remedy. 

The cucumber beetle is also the most troublesome enemy 
of squash, muskmelons and watermelons. These plants 
may be protected in the same way as the cucumber. 

The aphis. — The aphis, a small green fly, is a sucking 
insect that attacks lettuce, peas and other green leaf crops. 
It is also frequently found on flowering shrubs. It may 
be controlled by spraying with a mixture of soap and water, 
or with a nicofume preparation mixed according to direc- 
tions on the package. 

The cutworm. — The cutworm attacks a number of 
different vegetables, cutting them off just at or near the 
surface of the ground. The remedy is fall plowing, and poi- 
soning. An effective method of attracting to the poison is to 
dip clover blossoms in Paris green, or add Paris green to a 
mixture of bran and molasses, and strew around the roots 
of the plants. 

PLAN FOR SMALL HOME GARDEN 

This garden plan is based upon very intensive cultivation, 
very fertile soil, and plenty of moisture throughout the entire 
growing season. In order to mature the beans, carrots, and 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



317 



tomatoes in mid-summer it will probably be necessary to irri- 
gate when the rainfall is not sufficient for the garden. It will 
be noted that the plan calls for a second and third planting in 
the case of a number of vegetable. These should be planted in 
the same, rows after maturity of the previous crop. 

Nasturtiums or Astors for Border on One Side 



First Planting 



O 



Tomatoes 

Carrots 

Stringless Beans 

Carrots 

Tomatoes 

Carrots 

Wax Beans 

Carrots 

Tomatoes 

Beets 

Stringless Beans 

Beets 

Tomatoes 

Onions 

Onions 

Onions 

Radishes 

Radishes 

Lettuce 

Lettuce 

Lettuce 



Second Planting 


Third Planting 


Late Icicle Radish 




Late Icicle Radish 




Late Head Lettuce 




Turnips 




Early Beans 


Spinach 


Late Beans 




Early Beans 


Spinach 


Late Beans 




Early Beans 


Spinach 


Late Beans 





o 



Parsley and Mint (half of each) for Border 



The eastern and western borders may be of vegetable 
greens, such as spinach, Swiss chard, etc. Distance between 
rows, nine inches. In place of two rows of carrots as shown in 
the plan it may be well to substitute peas. In the eastern 
states the early varieties will keep the ground occupied through- 
out the season. Instead of one or two rows of tomatoes use 
a row of salsify and a row of parsnips. The first row of onions 
should be onion sets, with the idea of harvesting them early 



318 



AGRICULTURE AND 




3 






as 

o 

o 

a 

o 

M 



Q 



C5 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



319 



and getting them out of the way before the tomato plants are 
large. Bulbs of the early blooming flowers, such as tulips, cro- 
cuses, etc., may be placed in the ground late in the fall and 
much of their blooming completed before planting time for the 
garden. Fall greens such as spinach and kale should be planted 
as other crops mature. Plant asters and other fall blooming 
plants wherever possible. Leave no vacant space in your 
garden. 

Profit From Home Canning of Vegetables and Fruit 
Purchased for Cash 

(Canning work done at Pawtucket, R. I.) 













Market 












Returns 






Market 






for 


Article 


Quantitj' 


Cost of 


Sugar 


Number 


Canned 






Product 




of Jars 


Products 


Asparagus 


61b. 


$0.45 




2 


$1.00 


Shell Beans 


Vz bu 


.50 




4 


2.40 


String Beans 


2 bu. 


2.00 




Z2 


16.00 


Wax Beans 


Ibu. 


1.25 




15 


8.00 


Beets 


10 bunch. 


.25 • 




4 


1.44 


Carrots 


10 bunch. 


.25 




4 


1.44 


Cherries 


2qt. 


.30 


lib. 


1 


.60 


Corn 


13 dz. cars 


1.30 




9V2 


9.50 


Currants 


10 pt. 


.50 


21b. 


4 


2.00 


Peaches 


41 qt. 


3.45 


141b. 


27 


13.50 


Peas 


2bu. 


2.00 




12 


7.20 


Peppers 


Sy2 lb. 


.92 




7 


2.80 


Pineapples 


82 


6.30 


231b. 


361/2 


21.90 


Plums 


12 doz. , 


.55 


lib. 


2 


1.20 


Raspberries 


22 pt. 


2.20 


41b. 


7Vz 


7.50 


Rhubarb 


9 lb. 


.18 




3 


.75 


Squash 


10 lb. 


.20 




5 


1.50 


Strawberries 


20 qt. 


3.00 


101b. 


10 


10.00 






$25.60 


55 1b. 
@6c- 
$3.30 


\S6V2 


$108.73 



320 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Receipts: 






Market value of 186 jars 




$108.73 


Cost: 






Fruit and vegetables 


$25.60 




Sugar 


3.30 




Salt 


1.10 




Fruit jars, 16 dozen 


15.55 




Total cost 


$44.55 


44.55 


Net profit 


$ 64.18 




Members of Market Gnrden and Home Canning Club packing 
vegetables for parcel-post shipment. 

If a net profit of over one hundred per cent, or sixty- 
four dollars and eighteen cents can be made on canning 
food products purchased at a local market at regular prices 
how much more certain is a large profit in home canning 
if products are produced at home in your own garden ! 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 321 



CllAlTER XX 
THE TOMATO 

TOMATOES are becoming so important a garden and 
truck crop as to deserve a special chapter. They came 
originally from tropical regions, where the vines bear fruit 
all the year. 

Importance of the Tomata 

For a long time tomatoes were not known to have value 
as a food, but were thought to be poison. The plants were 
then cultivated for ornamental purposes and were known 
as "love apples." 

Used now as food. — The chief value of tomatoes as a 
food lies in the sugars and protein, and in a stimulating 
effect on digestion. More than three hundred recipes have 
been worked out in preparing tomatoes for our tables. Many 
more people will use tomatoes as a part of their diet when 
they come to know more of their value. 

Tomato growing states. — Tomatoes will grow suc- 
cessfully in almost every part of the United States. Mary- 
land is one of the largest tomato producing states, and has 
the largest number of tomato canning factories. New 
Jersey, Indiana, California and Delaware rank next. 

Hundreds of thousands of cases of tomatoes are now 



Z22 



AGRICULTURE AND 



being grown and canned annually by the boys and girls of 
the home canning clubs. It is estimated that, after paying 
the expenses of raising his crop, a club member from ten 
to eighteen years of age can make from ten to twenty-five 
dollars a day for the time he puts in canning the crop. 



^r---— jjOT 




A tomato garden in the city. 



Varieties 

In selecting the varieties for the home garden the length 
of season, quality, yield and appearance of the crop should 
be considered. 

Early varieties. — There are a great many varieties 
from which to select. Among the favorites are: Earliana, 
Chalk's Early Jewell, Bonnie Best, Globe and Prince's 
June Pink. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 323 

Late varieties, — The chief late varieties are : Stone, 
Matchless, Beauty, Ponderosa, Dzvarf Stone, Acme and 
Trophy. 

Raising the Crop 

Where the seasons are short it is necessary to start the 
plants in a hotbed and transplant them when all danger of 
frost is past. In the northern states it is well to use the 
cold-frame for hardening off the plants before setting in 
the garden. This process strengthens the plants and ena- 
bles the crop to mature before freezing in the fall. 

Transplanting, — Have the seed bed well prepared by 
deep spading or plowing, thoroughly manured with a well- 
rotted barnyard manure, and well pulverized. The plat 
should be marked off in rows three or four feet apart, accord- 
ing to the variety of tomatoes grown. The large hardy vari- 
eties will require a distance of four feet each way, while 
the dwarf varieties will do well three feet apart. In trans- 
planting, have the holes opened up, remove the plants from 
cold-frames or hotbed without injuring the roots. Allow 
enough soil to accompany the roots so that the plant may 
go on growing without pause. 

Pruning. — Much of the success of the tomato crop 
depends on proper pruning and staking. Tomatoes are 
especially liable to fungous and bacterial diseases, and there- 
fore need to be kept from the ground and given an abun- 
dance of sunlight. The vines should be pruned at the time 
of transplanting or soon afterward by pinching off the 
suckers, or secondary leaf buds, found in the axils of the 
leaves. This will cause the plant to grow tall instead of 



324 



AGRICULTURE AND 



r 




A plot of tomatoes in Geauga County, Ohio, produced by the 
Turner sisters of Cleveland, showing the result of careful prun- 
insr and staking. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 325 

spreading out. After each vine has developed four or five 
clusters of fruit the top bud should be pinched oflf to prevent 
the plant from growing too high. 

Staking. — The method of pruning described requires 
staking to support the vines. For this purpose a singly 
stake may be driven beside each hill, or a continuous meshed 
wire or other form of fence may be used. Soft twine or 
cloth should be used for tying the vines. No loop should 
be drawn tightly around the plant. 

Spraying. — The tomato vines should be thoroughly 
sprayed with Bordeaux mixture several times during the 
season. The first spray should be given about the time the 
first fruit begins to form, or even earlier if the season is 
warm and moist. This will prevent the plants from being 
attacked by mildew. Remove at once any tomatoes that 
show a brownish discolored area about the blossom end. 
This will prevent the spread of disease. 

Harvesting and Marketing 

Gathering the crop. — Tomatoes should be gathered 
when ripe and firm and should be handled with great care 
to prevent crushing or bruising. For marketing they should 
be graded in three classes, prime, medium and cidls. The 
more nearly uniform in size, shape and color, the more will 
the market offer for the product. Primes and even the 
medium may be wrapped in thin paper, placed in boxes, 
crates or baskets, and sold at a good price and by the pound. 

Canning. — Tomatoes for canning purposes should be 
thoroughly ripened and be of a deep red color, smooth 



326 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Waterloo, Iowa, club girl demonstrating how to prune tbe to- 
mato plant by pinching off the axillary bud. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 327 

and firm. They should be canned whole so as to permit 
the use of the tomato in as many different ways as is pos- 
sible with the fresh tomato. Water should not be added 
to jars or cans when canning tomatoes, as this will dilute 
their flavor and Injure their purity. The culls may be put 
up for such purposes as puree, for tomato soup and breaded 
tomatoes. 



328 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XXI 

HOME CANNING OF FRUITS, VEGETABLES, 
MEATS AND SOUPS 

IT is both practicable and economical to can the surplus 
vegetables, fruit, sweet corn, greens and other prod- 
ucts that commonly go to waste in the orchard, field and 
garden. 

Home Canned Products and the Table 

When the average home has learned to can its surplus 
fresh food products, then the family may have a balanced 
ration every day in the year, the cost of living will be 
greatly reduced, and it will turn the garden and orchard by- 
products into net profits. 

Home canned foods. — The average family should 
plan to have for table use from the home-canned supply 
one quart of vegetables, one quart of fruit and one quart 
of greens for every day in the year when these foods 
are not available fresh in the garden. The ration based on 
these foods and supplemented by meats is better balanced 
and less expensive than one based on meats with a scarcity 
of fruits and vegetables. Such a system will have a ten- 
dency to cut down both the doctor's bills and the grocery 
bills, and will furnish a more palatable diet. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



329 




330 



AGRICULTURE AND 



The surplus food products. — The importance of home 
canning is still more fully realized when we stop to con- 
sider that in most states probably from one-fifth to one-half 
of all the fruits and vegetables raised are allowed to go to 
waste. They are not needed for immediate consumption, 
and methods of grading, crating and marketing are not 
understood. Home canning may save all of this surplus. 




Utah home canning girl and her exhibit of fifty-nine 
varieties of canned food products. 

Successful canning not difficult. — By following simple 
directions and time-tables for sterilization, even school 
children may successfully can anything that grows in the 
garden, field or orchard. Once canned the product has a 
money value, and is as standard in the market as sugar or 
nails. 

The list of directions and time-tables given in this chap- 
ter are written for use in connection with the usual home- 
canning utensils, and with the five distinct types of canning 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 331 

outfits. Such outfits are not expensive. They can be 
bought all the way from eighty-nine cents up to fifty dol- 
lars, depending on type and size. All kinds of glass jars, 
bottles and tin cans commonly used in the old methods of 
canning may be used with these devices and with this 
method. 

The following recipes and canning instructions are taken 
from the "N. R." Series of Home Canning Club Instruc- 
tions prepared by one of the authors and his assistant for 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Extension 
Work, Northern and Western States. These instructions 
are equally valuable for home canning in any part of the 
United States, Canada, island possessions, Alaska and Eu- 
rope. 

Methods of Canning. — Home canning as now prac- 
tised may be classified by the following methods : 

1. Open-Kettle Method. — The oldest method is what is 
known as the "hot-pack" or "open-kettle" method, which re- 
quires the cooking of the food products before packing, and 
sealing the pack after the sterilizatioif has been completed. 
Tliis is the most laborious and the most unsatisfactory 
method, especially when canning vegetables and meats. 
Very few people succeed by this method in the conservation 
of their surplus vegetables, soups, meats and fish, though 
they may succeed very well in canning of the general and 
more expensive fruits. 

2. Intermittent Method. — The "intermittent" process, 
or fractional sterilization method of canning of fruits, vege- 
tables and meats is a method that requires the cooking or 



332 AGRICULTURE AND 

sterilizing of food products for one hour periods for three 
or more successive days and is successful in so far as the 
sterilization of food products is concerned, but is very un- 
satisfactory, in that it requires too much time and con- 
sumes too much fuel as well as the energy of the al- 
ready overworked housewife. There are few people 
who would be encouraged to go into extensive canning of 
the by-products and surplus fruits and vegetables, such as 
greens, peas, snap beans, lima beans, tomatoes and sweet 
corn, if the only way open to them would be through the 
intermittent process. 

3. Vacuum Seal Method. — The vacuum seal method 
of canning is a method of home canning in which jars are 
sealed by a vacuum caused by exhausting or by use of an 
air pump. In using this method you can follow the cold- 
pack, one period directions given in this book excepting that 
you will have to secure in some cases the special vacuum 
seal jars. 

4. The cold-water method of canning referred to by 
housewives is a metliod often used for the canning of rhu- 
barb, green gooseberries, and a comparatively few other 
sour and highly acid vegetables and fruits. We do not 
recommend this method for the reason that most of these 
products will need to be cooked anyway before they can 
be used, either for pie-filling or sauces, and it is a saving 
of labor to do the cooking at the beginning, when the 
product is canned. For the benefit of those who wish to 
know the cold-water method, we simply suggest that the 
product is thoroughly washed, placed in a strainer, and 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 333 

scalding hot water poured over the product very rapidly; 
then the product is packed in its fresh state, and cold pure 
water applied until the jar is full. Seal jar under water. 
If these steps are taken quickly, in rapid succession, the 
method may be successful, especially with rhubarb and 
gooseberries. 

5. Cold-pack Method. — This method is used by the 
best canners in the United States and is known as the 
"cold-pack" and single period method of canning. This sim- 
ply means that the fruits are packed in their fresh and natu- 
ral state into the glass jar or container. No sirup is ap- 
plied, and the sterilization is done in the jar or container 
after it is partially sealed, thus making it impossible for 
bacteria, spores and molds to enter or come in contact with 
the food product after the sterilization has taken place. By 
this method vegetables are blanched in boiling hot water, 
plunged quickly in cold water, skins removed and products 
cut in sections or prepared, then packed quickly in container 
and sterilized in partially sealed glass jars or the completely 
sealed tin cans. By this method, all food products, includ- 
ing general fruits, vegetables and meats can be successfully 
sterilized in a single period, with but one handling of the 
product. The double-shock efifect upon bacteria in the pre- 
liminary steps is very important and should be taken quickly 
and the cover placed over each jar as soon as filled. 
There has been some misunderstanding as to the meaning 
of the term "cold-pack method of canning." It is often 
interpreted as meaning the cold-zvater method of canning, 
which is not true. The cold-pack method simply means 



334 AGRICULTURE AND 

that the food products are packed hi the containers, jars or 
tin cans, in their fresh state after blanching, and cold dip- 
ping and all sterilization or cooking performed after the 
pack has been completely or partially sealed. The cap is 
never removed after the cooking has been completed until 
the product is to be used during the year. All recipes 
given in this book are based upon this "Cold-Pack" 
method. The object of these Instructions is to encourage 
the canning of larger quantities of the cheaper food 
products, available on practically every farm, and having 
these fresh vegetables and fruits available for three hundred 
and sixty-five days in the year, rather than for an occa- 
sional holiday or Sabbath, or for use w^hen friends have 
been invited into the home. By adopting the single period 
method and sterilizing in closed packs and following the 
recipes given in this book it will be possible to reduce the 
cost of fuel for canning purposes to one-third of that 
required by the intermittent process, and it will reduce the 
amount of labor and time on the same basis. We trust, 
by the adoption of these methods, that it will not only be 
possible to have a larger supply of common vegetables and 
fruits for daily use, thus making a better-balanced ration 
for the family, but that it will result in a greater net profit 
to the average farmer, and a lower cost of living to both 
rural and city dwellers. 

Canning Equipment 

The canning outfits available for the sterilization of food 
products during the canning season may be divided into 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



335 




A commercial hot wnter bnth outfit for outdoor canning, 
showing interior arrangements of fire-box and sterilizing 
vat. 



336 



AGRICULTURE AND 



five general classes, and aside from these steamers, firelcss 
cookers, and bake ovens are often used. 

1. Home-made outfits, such as wash boilers, tin 
pails, milk cans, wash tubs and lard pails. These are made 
especially convenient and more efficient when false bot- 
toms, with lifting handles, are added, and tight fitting 
covers are made possible. 




Two types of canning ouUil.s: (a) tlie water seal; (b) tlie 
aluminum steam pressure type, used by canning club mem- 
bers. 

2. Hot-water bath commercial outfits. These out- 
fits are constructed usually for out-of-door work and have 
sterilizing vat, lifting trays, fire-box, and smoke-pipe all 
combined into one piece. They should be light and conve- 
nient, and planned as portable outfits. The only advantage 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 337 

of these outfits over the home-made devices is that they are 
made for convenience and have all of the necessary equip- 
ment with which to can and operate the outfit. Both the 
home-made and hot-water commercial canners are classed 
as hot-water bath outfits. They contemplate that the sterili- 
zation of all food products will be done in boiling hot water 
with water over top of the highest jar or can. 

3. Water-seal outfits. This is a type of canning out- 
fit made with an inner seal and jacket and a cover that 
passes into seal and between the outer jacket and inner 
jacket, thus making three tin or galvanized jackets and two 
water columns between the sterilizing vat and the outer 
surface of the canner. The chief value of this type of can- 
ner is in the fact that one can maintain a higher tempera- 
ture, and keep it more uniform than with the hot-water 
bath outfits. This is especially valuable in the canning of 
vegetables and meats, where the higher temperature means 
so much in the saving of time, fuel and energy in efifecting 
a complete sterilization of the food products. 

4. Steam-pressure outfits. This type of canner 
is manufactured so as to carry from five to thirty pounds 
of steam pressure and is equipped with vat, crate, cover, 
thermometer or pressure gage, safety valve and steam 
pet-cock. The safety valve can be easily regulated so as to 
carry different pressure values and thus accommodate the 
needs of various vegetables and food products. 

5. Aluminum pressure-cookers. This is a combina- 
tion outfit, which is used for both general cooking purposes 
and the canning of fruits, vegetables and meats. Because 



338 



AGRICULTURE AND 



of its general utility in the home, for the cooking of all 
kinds of meats, vegetables, soups, gravies and stews, it can 




Stenm pressure outfit made of cast iron and supplied with 
a gas beater. 

be made to be of great labor-saving value to the housewife. 
It is considered the fastest canning outfit on the market. 
This is due to the fact that it is made entirely of aluminum 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 339 

and transmits heat very quickly and will carry as high as 
thirty pounds of steam pressure. Its make-up and necessary 
parts are practically the same as in the all steam-pressure 
outfits. 

The new steam-pressure, safety-lock canner is properly 
classed with the steam-pressure outfits except that it has an 
automatic safety lock which will not permit lifting the 
cover until steam-pressure has been lowered or completely 
released.* 

Temperature for Boiling Water at Different Altitudes 

Water boils at sea level at 212° Fahrenheit. As the alti- 
tude increases, the degree at which water will boil gradually 
decreases. The following table is intended as a guide to de- 
termine the increase of time required for the sterilization 
of foodstufifs in the canning process : 

500 feet above sea level, 211 degrees Fahrenheit. 
1,000 feet above sea level, 210 degrees Fahrenheit. 
• 2,000 feet above sea level, 208 degrees Fahrenheit. 
3,000 feet above sea level, 206 degrees Fahrenheit. 
4,000 feet above sea level, 204 plus degrees Fahrenheit. 
5,000 feet above sea level, 202 plus degrees Fahrenheit. 
6,000 feet above sea level, 201 plus degrees Fahrenheit. 
7,000 feet Above sea level, 199 plus degrees Fahrenheit. 

The time table given in these instructions will be based 
upon the first altitude given, five hundred feet above sea 

*The time scheduled for sterilization given in all of 
our recipes is made to accommodate the several distinct types 
of home canners. The home-made outfits and hot-water com- 
mercial outfits are classed as the same in all directions and un- 
der the head of "Hot-water bath outfits." The other four are 
classed in the order given above and under the same name, 
thus making the four classes with different time requirements. 



340 AGRICULTURE AND 

level. For every four thousand feet increase in altitude it 
will be well to add twenty-five per cent, to the time require- 
ments given in the time schedule for the canning of all 
kinds of fruits, vegetables, greens, meats and soups. 

Containers 

Glass Jars. — For home use it is conceded by most 
people that glass jars are the most desirable and economical 
for home canning, as they can be used from year to year, 
or indefinitely, by simply adding new rubbers and caps each 
year. Practically all of the various types of glass jars avail- 
able on the market can be used successfully in the canning 
of all kinds of fruits, vegetables, meats and soups by the 
"cold-pack method" outlined in these instructions. 

In the handling of all glass top jars, with the top and 
clamp springs, it is important to remember that the rubbers, 
caps and top spring are put in place, while the clamp spring 
is left up or raised during the entire period of sterilization. 

In handling "screw top jars," it is important to remem- 
ber that rubbers and caps are put in place and turned until 
they touch the rubber (sealed partially) not too tight. They 
should be loose enough to allow the escape of excessive or 
expanded air. All suction or self -seal tops such as Economy, 
Airseal, etc., are closed completely as possible before steril- 
izing the products. 

Making of Brines and Sirups 

Brines. — Brines arc made by boiling salt and water to- 
gether to a certain degree of density. This is what is meant 
by the expression "making a five per cent, brine." 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 341 

Table for Making Brine 



Salt 


Water 


Per Cent. 


1 lb. 


m gal. 


1 


H lb. 


121 gal. 


H 


2 lb. 


12i gal. 


2 


4 lb. 


12* gal. 


4 


5 lb. 


12 1 gal. 


5 


10 lb. 


12| gal. 


10 



Sugar Sirups. — Fruit sirups are made by boiling 
sugar and water together to a certain density. This den- 
sity is usually denominated by per cent, density and is meas- 
ured by a density gage or in the absence of the instrument 
the estimates may be made by what is sometimes termed a 
"mental-finger gage," which should be explained as an ap- 
proximate estimate of the thickness or density of sirups. 

Table of Sirup Density 



Sugar 


]Vatcr 


Per Cent. 


1 pt. 


2 pts. 


14 


1 pt. 


Ipt. 


24 


Ipt. 


ipt. 


32 


Ipt. 


1 gill. 


40 


2-1 lb. 


1 gal. 


10 


31 lb. 


1 gal. 


15 


4:^ lb. 


1 gal. 


20 


6^ lb. 


1 gal. 


30 


8 lb. 


1 ral. 


40 



The Western formula for sirup is three parts of 
sugar to two parts of water boiled to a thin, medium thin, 
vicdiuni thick or Ihick siruj\ Two parts sugar to three 
parts of water may be used for sweet fruits. 



342 AGRICULTURE AND 

The formula for sweet common fruits is made of three 
quarts of water to two quarts of sugar, boiled to a thin, 
medium thin, medium thick or tJiick sirup. 

Density Terms Defined 

1. Thin sirup is sugar and water boiled sufficiently to 
dissolve all sugar, not sticky. 

2. ]\Iediu}n thin Is when sirup has begun to thicken and 
becomes sticky when cooled on finger tip or spoon. 

3. Medium thick is when sirup has thickened enough 
to roll or bank up over edge of spoon when you try to 
pour it out. 

4. Thick sirup is when it has become so thick that it 
is difificult to pour out of spoon or container (not sugared). 

Thin sirups are used for all sweet fruits that are not 
too delicate in texture and color, such as cherries, peaches, 
apples, etc. 

Medium thin sirups are used in the canning of the me- 
dium sweet fruits, such as blackberries, dewberries, huckle- 
berries, raspberries, etc. 

Medium thick sirups are used in the canning of all sour 
fruits, such as gooseberries, apricots, sour apples, etc., and 
delicately colored fruits, such as strawberries and red rasp- 
berries. 

Thick sirup is used for general preserving and in making 
all kinds of sun preserves. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 343 

Useful Tables 

1,000 No. 2 empty tin cans will weigh 212 pounds. 
1,000 No. 3 empty tin cans will weigh 310 pounds. 
1 case for 24 empty No. 2 tin cans will weigh 13 pounds. 
1 case for 24 empty No. 3 tin cans will weigh 17 pounds. 

The following table will shozv approximately hotv many 
No. 2 and No. 3 cans can be filled from a bushel of various 
fruits and vegetables. 

No. 2 cans No. 3 cans 

or pint or quart 

Product filled filled 

1 bushel windfall apples 30 20 

1 bushel standard peaches 25 18 

1 bushel pears 45 30 

1 bushel plums 45 30 

1 bushel blackberries 50 30 

1 bushel windfall oranges (sliced) 22 15 

1 bushel windfall oranges (whole) 35 22 

1 bushel tomatoes 22 15 

1 bushel shelled lima beans 50 30 

1 bushel string beans 30 20 

1 bushel sweet corn 45 25 

1 bushel shelled peas 16 10 

1 bushel sweet potatoes 30 20 

Reasons and Explanations for use of terms, "Scalding," 
"Blanching" and "Cold-Dipping" 

Scalding. — The most important reasons for scalding 
fruits and veirctables are as follows : 



344 AGRICULTURE AND 

1. To loosen the skins. 

2. To eliminate objectionable acids and acrid flavors. 

3. To kill spores, bacteria, etc., by the "double-shock" 
method.* 

4. To make it unnecessary to exhaust the product be- 
fore final cooking or sterilization. 

The term "scalding" is used in connection with the hand- 
ling of fruits and vegetables from which skins are to be 
removed, and simply means to place in boiling hot water 
or steam long enough to loosen the skin. 

Blanching. — The important reasons for blanching arc 
as follows: 

1. To eliminate objectionable acids and acrid flavors. 

2. To reduce the bulk of vegetable greens. 

3. To make it unnecessary to use the exhaust period 
and intermittent process. 

4. To kill spores, bacteria, etc., by the "double-shock" 
method. 

The term "blanching" means to place product in hot 
water or greens in live steam for a sufficient time not 
only to loosen the skin, but remove excessive and objection- 
able acids and to reduce bulk. 

Cold-dipping. — The important reasons for using the 
cold-dip in canning are : 

1. To harden the pulp under the skin and thus permit 
the removal of skin without injury to the pulp. 

2. To coagulate the coloring matter and make it harder 
to break down during the sterilization period. 

3. To make it easier to handle the products in packing 

*A11 bacteria and spores given to product from cold 
water are immediately subject to sudden (shock) change of tem- 
perature by adding hot water from kettle to product and plac- 
ing rubber and top in position at once. These three steps must 
be taken in rapid succession in order to get best results. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



345 



and to shorten the time of processing by quickly removing 
them from hot and exposing them to cold water. 

4. To kill spores, bacteria, etc., by the "double-shock" 




Canning surplus vegetables "cold packed" method and by 
use of wash boiler as canner. 



which means the sudden transfer from hot to cold water 
and from cold surface to hot water again. 



346 AGRICULTURE AND 

DIRECTIONS FOR HOME CANNING, COLD PACK 

METHOD 

Classification of Fruits and Directions for Canning 

For convenience we suggest that fruits be classified into 

four distinct groups or classes, such as soft fruits, sour 

berry fruits, hard fruits and citrus fruits and that this 

simple method be followed rather than to apply a confusion 

of recipes to home canning work. 

1. Soft fruits, such as strawberries, blackberries, dew- 
berries, sweet cherries, blue berries, peaches, apricots, etc. 

Directions for Canning Soft Fruits: Can the same day- 
fruit is picked. Grade and rinse the fruit by pouring 
water over the fruit through a strainer. Cull, seed and 
stem. Pack immediately in glass jar or tin can. Add boil- 
ing hot sirup to top. Place rubber and top in place. Par- 
tially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Sterilize in hot-water 
bath outfit 16 minutes ; in water-seal outfit 10 minutes ; 
steam-pressure outfit, under 5 pounds of steam 8 minutes ; 
in aluminum pressure-cooker, with 10 pounds of steam, 5 
minutes. Remove. Tighten covers. Invert to cool and 
test joints. Wrap glass jars in paper to prevent bleaching 
and store. 

Shrinkage of fruits before packing may be done by steam- 
ing the fruit for a few minutes before packing. 

2. Sour berry fruits, such as currants, gooseberries, 
cranberries and sour cherries. 

Directions for Canning Sour Berry Fruits: Can same day 
picked. Stem, seed, hull and clean. Blanch in hot water 2 
minutes. Remove and dip quickly in cold water. Pack 
berries closely in container. Add hot sirup until full. Place 
rubber and cap in place. Seal partially, not tight. (Cap and 
tip cans completely.) Sterilize in hot-water bath outfit 16 
minutes ; in water-seal outfit, 12 minutes ; in five-pound 
steam-pressure outfit, 10 minutes ; in aluminum pressure- 
cooker outfit, under 10 pounds of steam, 5 minutes. Re- 
move jars. Tighten covers and invert to cool and test joints. 
Wrap in paper and store. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 347 

3. Hard fruits, such as apples, pears, quince, etc. 

Directions for Canning Hard Fruits: Grade. Blanch 1| 
minutes, and plunge quickly into cold water. Remove 
skins if necessary. Core, pit or skin. Pack whole, quar- 
tered, or sliced, as desired. Add boiling hot sirup. Place 
rubbers and tops in position. Partially tighten. (Cap and 
tip tin cans.) Sterilize 20 minutes in hot- water bath out- 
fit; 12 minutes in water-seal outfit; 8 minutes under 5 
pounds of steam in steam-pressure outfit ; 6 minutes in 
aluminum pressure-cooker, under 10 pounds of pressure. 
Remove jars. Tighten covers and invert to cool and test 
joints. Wrap glass jars in paper to prevent bleaching, and 
store. 

4. Citrus fruits. — Oranges, canned whole for break- 
fast dishes or sliced for fruit salads. The object of can- 
ning citrus fruits is : first, to save the surplus and the 
get-away food prodvicts ; second, to furnish wholesome 
fruits at reasonable cost to more people ; third, to help pro- 
ducer to transform his by-products into net profits. 

Directions for Canning Whole Oranges: Select windfall 
or packing plant culls. Use no unsound or decayed fruit. 
Remove skins and surface pulp. Blanch fruit in boiling hot 
water 1^ minutes or in live steam. Dip in cold water quick- 
ly. Pack containers full. Add boiling hot thin sirup about 
18 or 20 per cent, density. Place rubber and cap in position. 
Partially seal, not tight. (Cap and tip tin cans.) Sterilize 
12 minutes in hot-water bath outfit ; 8 minutes in water-seal 
outfit ; 6 minutes in steam-pressure outfit, under 5 pounds of 
steam ; 4 minutes in aluminum pressure-cooker outfit, un- 
der 10 pounds of steam. Remove jars. Tighten covers. 
Invert to cool and test joints. Wrap glass jars with paper 
and store. 

Directions for Canning Sliced Oranges for Salad Pur- 
poses: The oranges may be divided into their natural sec- 
tions or sliced with a knife. Pack jar or container full. Pour 
over product hot sirup of 18 per cent, density. Place rubber 
and cap in position. Partially seal, not tight. (Cap and 



348 AGRICULTURE AND 

tip cans.) Sterilize 10 minutes in hot-water bath outfit; 
6 minutes in water-seal outfit ; 5 minutes in steam-pressure 
outfit, with 5 pounds of steam ; 4 minutes in aluminum 
pressure-cooker outfit, under 10 pounds of steam. Re- 
move jars. Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test the 
joints. Wrap glass jars with paper and store. 



Classification of Vegetables and Directions for Canning 

For convenience in the discussion of canning directions 
and methods of procedure, we divide vegetables into five 
classes. 

1. Vegetable greens, both wild and domestic (30 
varieties). 

Directions for canning vegetable greens: Prepare and can 
the day picked. Sort and clean. Blanch in vessel with 
a little water under false bottom or in a regular steamer 
10 to 15 minutes. Remove. Plunge quickly into cold 
water. Cut in convenient lengths. Pack in glass jar or 
other container closely and season by adding strip of bacon 
or a little chipped beef, olive oil, etc., to taste. Add hot 
water to fill crevices and level teaspoon ful of salt to each 
quart. If using glass jars place rubber and top in posi- 
tion, partially seal ; if using tin cans, cap and tip com- 
pletely. Sterilize 90 minutes in hot-water bath outfit; 
60 minutes in water-seal ; 50 minutes in steam-pressure out- 
fit, under 5 pounds of steam; 25 minutes in aluminum 
pressure-cooker outfit, at 15 pounds of steam. Remove 
from canner. Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test 
joints. Wrap in paper to prevent bleaching and store. 

Edible Cultivated Greens: Swiss chard, kale, Chinese 
cabbage leaves, upland cress, French endive, cabbage 
sprouts, turnip tops, New Zealand spinach, asparagus, 
spinach, beet tops, cultivated dandelion, dasheen sprouts, 
native mustard, Russian mustard, collards, rape, fennel. 



TPIE FARMING BUSINESS 349 

Edible Wild Greens: Pepper greens, lambs' quarter, 
sour dock, smartweed sprouts, purslane or "pusley," chic- 
ory, poke weed, dandelion, marshmarigold, wild mustard, 
milk weed, tender sprouts of red-root. 

All are canned by the same directions. 

Cabbage, Brussel Sprouts and Cauliflower — The direc- 
tions for canning these vegetables is practically the same as 
for the above named vegetable greens and the same instruc- 
tions may be followed, except that these products should 
be allowed to stand in cold, slightly salted water for 20 or 
30 minutes before blanching. 

Experience alone will teach the slight variations neces- 
sary in amount of time required for blanching, amount of 
seasoning necessary for the various vegetable greens, and 
the actual or best time required for sterilizing. 

2. Root and tuber vegetables, such as carrots, par- 
snips, beets, turnips, sweet potatoes, etc. 

Directions for Canning Root and Tuber Vegetables: 
Grade for size, color and degree of ripeness. Wash thor- 
oughly. Use vegetable brush. Scald in boiling hot water, 
sufficiently to loosen skin. Plunge quickly in cold water. 
Scrape or pare to remove skin. Pack whole or cut in sec- 
tions or cubes (sweet potatoes may be mashed if desired), 
as required by the home or market standard. Add boiling 
hot water and one teaspoon ful of salt to the quart. Place 
rubbers and tops in position. Partially seal, but not too 
tight. (Cap and tip tin cans.) Sterilize 90 minutes in hot- 
water bath outfit ; 75 minutes in water-seal outfit ; 60 min- 
utes in steam-pressure outfit, under 5 pounds of steam; 
35 minutes in aluminum pressure-cooker, under 15 pounds 
of steam. 

3. Special vegetables, tomatoes and corn. 

Directions for Canning Tomatoes or Ripe Red Peppers: 
Grade for size, ripeness and color. Scald in hot water or 



350 AGRICULTURE AND 

steam enough to loosen skins. Plunge quickly in cold water 
(do not leave tomatoes or peppers in water while you skin 
and core them). Remove. Core and skin. Pack whole, 
crowd them closely into space. Fill container with whole 
product only. Add 1 level teaspoon ful of salt to each 
quart. Place rubber and cap in position. Partially seal, 
but not tight. (Cap and tip tin cans.) Sterilize 32 min- 
utes in hot-water bath outfit ; 22 minutes in water-seal outfit ; 
15 minutes in steam-pressure outfit, under 5 pounds of 
steam; 10 minutes in aluminum pressure-cooker, under 10» 
pounds of steam. Remove jars. Tighten covers. Invert 
to cool and test joints. Wrap jars in paper and store.* 

Directions for Canning Stvcct Corn on the Cob: Can corn 
same day picked. Remove husks, silks, and grade for size. 
Blanch ears of corn in a steam chest or steamer 10 to 15 
minutes. Plunge quickly in cold water. Pack ears, alter- 
nating butts and tips in half-gallon glass jars, or gallon tin 
cans. Pour over boiling hot water and add one level tea- 
spoonful of salt and two tablespoonfuls of sugar to each 
gallon. Place rubbers and tops in position. Seal 
partially, but not tight. Cap and tip tin cans. Sterilize 
in hot-water bath outfit 180 minutes, one period; 90 min- 
utes in water-seal outfit ; 60 minutes in steam-pressure out- 
fit under 5 pounds of steam; 40 minutes in aluminum 
pressure-cooker under 20 pounds of steam. Remove jars. 
Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test joints. Wrap 
glass jars with paper and store. f 

Directions for Canning Szveet Corn off the Cob: Can the 
same day picked. Remove husks, silks. Blanch on the 
cob in steamer or boiling water 1 to 15 minutes. Plunge 
cjuickly in cold water. Cut the corn from the cob with a thin 

*In handling the ripe hot peppers it will be necessary to use 
rubber gloves or handle so as to avoid getting the bare hands 
in contact with the hot peppers while coring and peeling. 

fWhen sweet corn is taken from jar or tin can for table 
use, remove ears as soon as jar or can is opened. Heat 
corn, slightly buttered, in steamer. Do not allow ears to stand 
in water or to be boiled in water the second time. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 351 

sharp-bladcd knife. Pack corn in jar tightly until full. Add 
1 level teapsoonful of salt and two or more of sugar to 
each quart, and sufficient hot water to fill. Place rubber 
and top in position, seal partially but not tight. (Cap 
and tip tins.) Sterilize 180 minutes in hot-water bath 
outfits ; 90 minutes in water-seal ; 60 minutes in steam- 
pressure under 5 pounds of steam ; 40 minutes in aluminum 
pressure-cooker under 15 pounds of steam. Remove jars. 
Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test joints. Wrap 
with paper and store. 

4. Other vegetables, such as lima beans, string beans, 
peas, okra, etc. 

Directions for Canning: Can same day vegetables are 
picked. Cull, string and grade. Blanch in boiling hot water 
or in steamer for 5 minutes. Remove and plunge quickly in 
cold water. Pack in container until full. Add boiling hot 
w'ater to fill crevices. Add 1 level teaspoonful of salt to 
each quart. Place rubbers and tops in position. Partially 
seal but not tight. (Cap and tip tins.) Sterilize in hot- 
water bath outfit one period of 120 minutes ; 90 minutes in 
water-seal outfit ; 60 minutes in steam-pressure outfit, under 
5 pounds of steam ; 40 minutes in aluminum pressure-cooker, 
imder 20 pounds of steam. Remove jars. Tighten covers 
and invert to cool. Wrap jars in paper and store. 

5. Pumpkin, squash, chayote fruit, etc. 

Directions for Canning (pie filling): Cut into conve- 
nient sections, core and remove skins. Cook for 30 minutes 
to reduce to pulp. Pack in glass jar or tin can. Add one 
cup of sugar, one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of pulp. 
Place rubber and top in position. Partially seal, but not 
too tight. Sterilize 60 minutes in hot-water bath outfit; 
50 minutes in water-seal outfit; 40 minutes in steam-pres- 
sure outfit, under 5 pounds of steam ; 30 minutes in alumi- 
num pressure-cooker, under 15 pounds of steam. Remove. 
Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test joint. Wrap in 
paper and store. 

Directions for Canning, Special Dishes (fried, creamed, 
baked): Cut the pumpkin, squash, chayote into small uni- 



352 AGRICULTURE AND 

form-sized cubes. Blanch in boiling hot water for 10 
minutes. Plunge quickly in cold water. Pack in jar until 
full. Add boiling hot water and 1 level teaspoon ful of salt 
and one-half cup sugar to the quart. Place rubbers and 
caps in position, not tight. Sterilize 60 minutes in hot- 
water bath outfit ; 45 minutes in water-seal outfit ; 35 min- 
utes in steam-pressure outfit, under 5 pounds of steam ; 25 
minutes in aluminum pressure-cooker, under 20 pounds of 
steam. Remove. Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test 
joint. Wrap in paper and store. 

Canning of Windfall and Cull Apples 

The windfall and cull apples may be divided into two 
grades. For first grade use the whole, reasonably sound 
fruit; for second grade use the sound portion of worm- 
eaten, partially decayed; do not allow apples to become 
over-ripe before canning. 

Directions for Canning Whole, Reasonably Finn Apples: 
Wash apples. Remove core and blemishes. Place whole 
apples in blanching tray or blanching cloth, and blanch in 
boiling hot water or steam for two minutes. Remove and 
dip quickly into cold water. Pack in large, empty glass jars 
or gallon tin cans. Pour over the product a hot thin sirup 
of about 18 per cent, density. Place rubber and top in po- 
sition, seal partially, not tight. (If using tin cans, cap and 
tip completely.) Process one-half gallon or gallon contain- 
ers 20 minutes in boiling hot water, if using home-made or 
hot-water bath outfits; or 15 minutes in water-seal; or 10 
minutes in steam-pressure outfit, with 5 pounds of steam 
pressure ; or 5 minutes in aluminum pressure-cooker out- 
fit, under 15 pounds of steam pressure. Remove jars, 
tighten covers, invert to cool and test joints. Wrap in 
paper and store. The time will have to be varied according 
to variety as well as ripeness and condition of the fruit. 
Use just enough time to sterilize perfectly, and yet not to 
change the color or reduce the pulp to sauce. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 353 

If the apples are firm and tart, the same recipe can be 
used in canning whole apples with both cores and peelings 
removed. 

Daily Use of Above Canned Whole Apples. — 1. Break- 
fast dish, with cream and sugar added. 2. Apple salad. 
3. Apple dumpling. 4. Apple pot pie. 5. Baked apple. 
6. Apple puddings and filling for pot roasts. 

Directions for Canning Apple Pie Filling: Use second 
grade of windfalls or culls. Wash, core, pare and remove 
all decayed or injured spots. Slice apple quickly into a basin 
containing slightly salted cold water, to keep from discolor- 
ing. Pack fresh cold product in glass jars or tin cans. Add 
one teacup ful of hot thin sirup to each quart of about 18 
per cent, density. Place rubber and top in position ; partially 
seal, but not tight. Cap and tip completely if using tin cans. 
Sterilize 12 minutes in hot-water bath, home-made outfit ; 
10 minutes in water-seal outfit; 6 minutes under 5 pounds 
of steam pressure; 4 minutes in aluminum pressure-cooker, 
under 10 pounds of steam pressure. Remove jars, tighten 
covers, invert to cool, and test joints. Wrap in paper and 
store.* 

Directions for Canning Quartered Apples for Fruit 
Salads: Select best grade of culls, firm and rather tart va- 
rieties. Core, pare and quarter. Drop into a basin containing 
slightly salted cold water. Pack these quartered pieces 
tightly in jar or tin container. Add a teacup ful of thin hot 
sirup to each quart. Place rubber and top in position ; partial- 

*When using this filling for apple pies, strain the 
sirup from the pulp and save for use, place sliced product on 
pie crust layer in the apple-pie tins, sprinkle with brown sugar, 
cinnamon or nutmeg, place pic dough over top, trim and bake 
in a properly heated oven for 10 or 12 minutes. The apple pie 
baked from this product will be as good, if not better, than the 
ordinary pie baked from fresh apples, and can be prepared and 
baked in less than half the time usually required when making 
pie from the fresh and more expensive fruit. 



354 AGRICULTURE AND 

ly seal, not tight. Cap and tip completely tin cans. Sterilize 
12 minutes in hot-water bath, home-made outfit ; 10 minutes 
in water-seal outfit; 6 minutes under 5 pounds of steam 
pressure ; 4 minutes in aluminum pressure-cooker under 10 
pounds of steam pressure. Remove jars, tighten covers, 
invert to cool and test joints. Wrap in paper and store.* 

Keeping Apple Juice Siveet by the Home Canning 
Method: Fill fruit jars with fresh apple juice. Add a 
tablespoon ful of sugar to each quart. Place rubber and cap 
in position, partially tighten, or cap and tip the tin cans. 
Sterilize in hot-water bath outfit for 30 minutes, 180 degrees 
heat ; in water-seal outfit for 20 minutes, same temperature. 
Remove jars, tighten cover, invert to cool and test joints. 
Do not undertake to sterilize apple juice or any other fruit 
juice under steam pressure or high temperature. 

If using bottles, put a plug of cotton in neck and leave 
during sterilization period, then remove bottles and place 
cork or cap in position without removing the cotton plug. 

Apple Sirup 

The average fruit farmer may not be able to make apple 
sirup commercially profitable, but during seasons when there 
are a large number of culls and windfalls, when markets are 
glutted, it is a matter of business economy to^ utilize by- 
products and reduce these apples to food value of some 
kind. The making of apple sirup for the family's winter 
use is then quite worth while. 

Reducing Szveet Apple Cider to Sirup: Wash ap- 
ples, remove all decayed and worm-eaten spots. Use 
only sweet apple juice. The sterilizing, reducing vat or ket- 
tle should be a third larger than required to hold contents. 

*Apples canned this way will sometimes discolor and 
deteriorate if allowed to stand over one year. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 355 

Directions for Making Apple Sirup: Add five ounces of 
powdered calcium carbonate* to seven gallons of apple cider. 
Boil in kettle or vat vigorously for a period of five minutes. 
Pour the liquid into vessels, preferably glass jars or pitch- 
ers, allow to stand six to eight hours or until perfectly clear. 
Pour the clear liquid into preserving kettle. Do not allow 
sediment at bottom to enter. Add to this one level tea- 
spoonful of lime and stir thoroughly. The process is com- 
pleted by boiling down rapidly to a clear liquid. Use den- 
sity gage or a candy thermometer and bring it up to 204 
degrees F., or without thermometer reduce bulk to one- 
seventh of original volume. Remove and cool rapidly in cold 
water until it shows same consistency as maple sirup. Do 
not allow to candy. Pour sirup into fruit jars, pitchers, 
bottles, etc., and allow to cool slowly. (Slow cooling is 
important.) The sirup can be cooled effectively in fireless 
cooker or wash boiler. The white sediment which settles 
during the cooling process is called by chemists malate of 
lime, and is a harmless compound of lime or acid of the 
apple. After this process the sirup is ready to be poured 
into fruit jars or bottles. Place rubber, cap or cork into 
position and not tight. Insert containers in hot water and 
sterilize for 12 minutes in hot-water or wash-boiler outfit ; 
10 minutes in water-seal outfits ; 8 minutes in steam-pressure 
outfits under 5 pounds of steam, or 5 minutes in aluminum 
pressure-cooker under 15 pounds pressure. 

Apple sirup made by this method is a very pure and 
high-grade product. Orchardists who have a large amount 
of waste every year would do well to establish a local apple 
sirup plant or perhaps a group of orchardists could com- 
bine and secure building, steam retort canners and con- 
venient apparatus, simplify the method and get most suc- 
cessful and profitable results, by transforming windfall 
apples into sterile apple juice (canned cider) or apple sirups. 

*Powdered calcium carbite is sometimes called car- 
bonate of lime and is a low-priced, harmless chemical available 
at any drug store. It looks something like powdered chalk. 



356 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Tinning, Capping and Soldering, Repair Work 

Tin cans. — The use of tin cans in the canning of the 
"get away" fruits and vegetables is entirely practical for 
the average farmer, trucker and fruit grower. The ques- 
tion of soldering and tipping the caps is a comparatively 




A lioiue cau-se;iler. Seals rim-seal cans without heat or solder, 
simple matter. Any child, twelve years of age or over, 
can easily learn how successfully to seal a tin can. It 
requires a hand capping iron and tipping steel, a little 
soldering flux, small brush, and a little practise. Self- 
heating capping irons are available and hand or auto- 
matic tin can sealers can be purchased or even rented by 
the year. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 357 

When tin cans are used for the canning of green vege- 
tables, meats, fish, oysters, etc., it is sometimes desirable to 
use the lacquered or enameled cans. 

Size of tin cans. — There are several standard sizes of 
tin cans in common use for canning purposes. They are 
denominated by number and with reference to the diameter 
of the opening. It is always necessary to state whether 
you desire plain tin cans, lacquered or enameled.' In buying 
caps, always ask for the solder hemmed caps and give 
diameter of can opening. When buying tin cans to be used 
with the automatic sealing machines you will not need 
either solder or additional heat. Simply buy caps and the 
metal rims and paper rings or gaskets with your cans. For 
the other sealing device use the standard rim-seal cans. 

Soldering equipment necessary. — Capping steel tip- 
ing copper, solder, sal ammoniac, a few scraps of zinc, two 
and seven-sixteenths inches opening tipping, solder flux, 
a small brush, porcelain, glass or stone cup in which 
to keep flux, a soft brick and a file. If using automatic 
sealer none of those things is needed. 

Soldering flux. — Soldering flux, which may be pur- 
chased ready for use, is a solution of crude muriatic acid 
and zinc diluted with water and strained through a cloth. 
Flux is used for cleaning the Irons and for brushing the 
tin and solder surfaces so as to make it possible for the 
solder in its melting condition to adhere to the tin. Pow- 
dered resin is sometimes used instead of the soldering flux. 
A soldering paste is also manufactured which is very 



358 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Automatic can sealing niacliiue, seals without beat or solder. 
Sold, or rented by tile year, to clubs and individual growers. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 359 

serviceable. The following soldering preparation or flux 
has been found to be very desirable, and is cleaner than the 
old flux : 

Zinc chloride 3.6 oz. 

Ammonium chloride 72.0 grains. 

Water 1 quart. 

Tinning a capping iron. — Purchase five or ten cents, 
worth of sal ammoniac at the drug store. Melt in this a lit- 
tle solder. Heat the capping iron enough so that it will melt 
the solder easily. Place the iron in the vessel containing the 
mixture of sal ammoniac and solder. Rotate iron in this 
until the soldering edge of the iron has become bright or 
thoroughly covered with the solder. 

Tinning a tipping copper.^ — The tipping copper is 
tinned very much the same as the iron. Sometimes it is 
desirable, however, to file or scrape the tipping copper a 
bit so as to make it smooth and to correct the point. Heat 
the iron and rotate the tip of this iron in the mixture of sal 
ammoniac and solder until the tip has been covered with the 
melted solder and rendered bright as silver. The copper 
should be filed to nearly a sharp point. All particles of 
smudge, burned material, etc., should be removed from 
iron before tinning. 

Capping a tin can. — When capping full cans, ar- 
range them in rows upon the table while the capping 
and tipping irons are in the fire heating. Take a handful 
of solder-hemmed caps and place the caps on all cans, ready 
to be capped. Then take the flux jar and small brush. 
Place finger on vent hole, hold cap in place, and run the 
brush around the solder-hemmed cap evenly, with light 



360 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Cappiuy iron, showing i)ositiou of band ami 
Also how iron is applied to solder hemmed cap. 



iii)riglit ruii. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



361 



stroke of the hand. Do this with all cans ready to be 
capped. Then take capping iron from the fire. Insert the 
upright steel in center. Hold capping iron above cap until 
center rod touches cap and holds it in place. (See page 
360.) Then bring cap down in contact with all four points 
of solder-hemmed cap and rotate back and forth about three 
strokes. Do not bear down on tipping iron. A forward and 




/] 





jj 



(A) Self-heating capping ii'on. (B) Flux jar and brush. (C) 
Solder-hemmed cap. (D) Ammonia bar for cleaning irons. 
(E) Wire solder. (F) Tipping copper and method of applicu- . 
tion. 

back stroke of this kind, if properly applied, will perfectly 
solder the cap in place. Remove capping iron and inspect 
the joint. 

If any pinholes are found, repair or recap. It may be 
necessary to use a piece of wire holder or a waste solder 



362 AGRICULTURE AND 

rim from a cap to add more solder to the broken or pinhole 
places of a cap. 

Tipping a tin can. — Now take flux cap and brush. 
Dip brush lightly in flux and strike the vent hole a side 
stroke, lightly, with brush and flux. 

Use the waste solder-hemmed cap rim or wire solder. 
Place point of wire solder over vent hole. Place upon this 
the point of the hot, bright tipping copper. Press down 
in a rotary motion. Remove quickly. 

A little practise will not only make this easy, but a 
smooth perfect joint will be the result.* 

Use of soldering tools for repair work in the home. — 
By the use of the solder, flux, sal ammoniac, capping 
steel and tipping iron, it is possible in a few minutes of time 
to solder the leaks in wash boiler, tin pails, milk pans and 
other vessels of kitchen, creamery, etc. This will not only 
save time for the farmer and the housewife, but will often- 
times save considerable expense and worry. 

*After the fruits, soups, meats and vegetables have 
been sealed and processed the required length of time, they 
should be removed and cooled quickly. When using tin cans, 
it is best to plunge them into cold water at once after the 
sterilization has been completed. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 363 



CHAPTER XXII 

SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS FOR CANNING FRUITS, 
VEGETABLES AND SOUPS 

THE following directions have been carefully tested by 
experts and practical housewives, and if carefully 
followed, will give excellent results. 

Fruit Canning 

Strawberries. — Can fresh, sound berries, same <lay 
picked. Hull (twist berries off hull), and place in strainer. 
Pour water over to cleanse. Place in very hot steam for 
3 minutes to shrink berries to insure full pack. Pack in jar 
or tin without crushing. Pour medumi thick hot sirup over 
berries to top. Put rubber and cap in position, not tight. 
(Cap and tip, if using enameled tin cans.) If using hot- 
water bath outfit sterilize 12 minutes, if using water-seal 
outfit or a five-pound steam-pressure outfit sterilize 6 min- 
utes, or if using an aluminum pressure-cooker outfit, ster- 
ilize 4 minutes. Remove jars. Tighten covers. Invert to 
cool and test the joint. Wrap jars with a paper to prevent 
bleaching and ^tore. (Sirup: 1)4 quarts sugar to 1 quart 
water, boiled to medium thick.) 

Strawberries. — (Berries canned by this recipe will not 
rise to top in sirup.) Use only fresh, ripe, firm and sound 



364 



AGRICULTURE AND 



berries. Prepare berries. Add 8 oz. of sugar and 2 table- 
spoonfuls of water to each quart of berries. Boil slowly 
for 10 minutes in enameled or acid-proof kettle, covered 
with a well-fitted cover while boiling. Allow berries to 
cool and remain over night in a covered kettle. Pack 
cold berries in glass jars. Put rubber and cap in position, 
not tight. (Cao and tip if using enameled tin cans.) If 




f jV'ircs (he -.illlK. Jj t»-l ^14(K) l>i;;,s,hl 

g • lor tdoUin;; av the H .•iiulVni ,t rt.<iinr(. n>J 

f ti I'Dik'i iMttrn l-v'I m H<> to 4!) i.ijiuiU'oinI 

h be ti-Liloiu iil(l<.!,rsf^ e.-.n I i.~ m.j) at»«. S4 



/-S tables or meats l«»r j 
'*■ tabic list W ilh ihi* ea 

er nav> heaitscf n twl 

conker] ,<jv 10 nii 




* ^ 



If you are Tn't^eK tcii in 
t he canningr of vcga — 
(ahlcs. orraiijfc with the 
Valk'S i.Hiricultiirist for 
a dcrnonstrafion in your 
iiLisrhborhood 





A canning exliibit at county fair showing three types of 
canners. 



using hot-water bath outfit sterilize eight minutes, if using 
water-seal outfit or a five-pound steam-pressure outfit 
sterilize 6 minutes, or if using an aluminum pressure-cooker 
outfit sterilize 4 minutes. Remove jars. Tighten covers. 
Invert to cool and test the joint. Wrap jars with paper to 
paper to prevent bleaching and store. 

Strawberry Preserve. — Make a sirup of one quart of 
water and 1 1 pounds of sugar and cook in an open kettle 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 365 

until a candy thermometer registers 265° when placed in 
the sirup. Add 8 pounds of berries to the sirup. Cook 
very slowly, just at the boiling point. Stop the cooking 
when the thermometer registers 219° and pour into shallow 
pans to cool. Hasten cooling by pouring cold sirup over 
berries. Skim while cooling. Fill jars when cold and allow 
to stand unsealed for 4 days. Put rubber and cap in posi- 
tion, not tight. (Cap and tip, if using enameled tin cans.) 
If using hot-water bath outfit sterilize 10 minutes, if using 
water-seal outfit, or a five-pound steam-pressure outfit, or 
a pressure-cooker outfit, sterilize 8 minutes. Remove jars. 
Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test the joint. Wrap 
jars with paper to prevent bleaching and store. 

Cherry Preserve. — Place one gallon of water in a 
kettle and add 10 pounds of pitted cherries. Boil slowly 
for 18 minutes. Add 12 pounds of granulated sugar and 
cook until product is boiling at temperature of 219°. Cool 
quickly in shallow pans. Pack into glass jars. Put rubber 
and cap in position, not tight. (Cap and tip if using 
tin cans.) If using hot-water bath outfit sterilize 20 
minutes, if using water-seal outfit, or five-pound steam-pres- 
sure outfit, or a pressure-cooker outfit sterilize 15 minutes. 
Remove jars. Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test the 
joint. Wrap jars with paper to prevent bleaching and 
store.* 

Grapes. — Use fresh fruit evenly ripened. Pick care- 
fully from the stem, wash and pack in glass jars. Cover 
with a thin sirup, boiling. Put rubbers and caps in posi- 

*When using pressure-cooker outfits on preserves keep the 
valve open during period of sterilization; in all other recipes 
it must be closed. 



366 AGRICULTURE- 'ANB-'- 

tion, not tight. (Cap and tip if us'in'g tin cans.) If using 
hot-water bath outfit sterilize 20 minutes, if using water- 
seal outfit sterilize 15 minutes, if using five-pound steam- 
pressure outfit sterilize 10 minutes, or if using pressure- 
cooker outfit sterilize 5 minutes. Remove jars. Tighten 
covers. Invert to cool and test the joint. Wrap jars with 
paper to prevent l^leaching and store. 

Wild Grapes, — Use fresh fruit evenly ripened. Pick 
from stem and wash. Pack in glass jars. Cover with thick, 
boiling sirup. Put rubbers and caps in position, not tight. 
(Cap and tip if using tin cans.) If using hot-water bath 
outfit sterilize 20 minutes, if using water-seal outfit sterilize 
15 minutes, if using 5-pound steam-pressure outfit sterilize 
12 minutes, or if using pressure cooker outfit sterilize 
8 minutes. Remove jars. Tighten covers. Invert to cool 
and test joint. Wrap jars with paper to prevent bleaching 
and store. 

Pears. — Use sound ripe fruit. Prepare, peel and 
core. Remove all blemishes. Pack whole or in halves, and 
blanch 5 minutes. Dip in cold water. Pack in glass jars 
or tin cans. Pour on hot sirup, medium or thin. Put rub- 
bers and cap in position, not tight. (Cap and tip if using 
tin cans.) If using hot-water bath outfit sterilize 30 min- 
utes, if using water-seal outfit or a five-pound steam-pres- 
sure outfit sterilize 25 minutes, or if using a pressure- 
cooker outfit sterilize 18 minutes. Remove jars. Tighten 
covers. Invert to cool and test joint. Wrap jars with paper 
to prevent bleaching and store. 

Wild or Damson Plum. — Grade fruit for size and 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 367 

ripeness. Wash and pack in glass jars. Fill with thin or 
medium thick hot sirup. Put rubbers and caps in position, 
not tight. (Cap and tip if using tin cans.) If using 
hot-water bath outfit sterilize 16 minutes, if using 
water-seal outfit or five-pound steam-pressure outfit sterilize 
12 minutes, or if using pressure-cooker outfit sterilize 8 
minutes. Remove jars. Tighten covers. Invert to cool 
and test joint. Wrap jars with paper to prevent bleaching 
and store. 

Huckleberries. — Stem and clean huckleberries. Pack 
in glass jar or tin can. Fill with thin hot sirup. Put rubber 
and cap in position, not tight. (Cap and tip if using tin 
cans.) If using hot-water bath outfit sterilize 20 minutes, if 
using water-seal outfit or a five-pound steam-pressure outfit 
sterilize 15 minutes, or if using pressure-cooker outfit steri- 
lize 10 minutes. Remove jars. Tighten covers. Invert to 
cool and test joint. Wrap jars with paper to prevent bleach- 
ing and store. 

Figs. — Select and grade fruit. Blanch 6 minutes in 
boiling water or steam and cold dip. Pack in glass jar or 
tin cans. Fill with medium thick sirup. Put rubber and 
cap in position, not tight. (Cap and tip if using tin cans.) 
If using hot- water bath outfit sterilize 40 minutes, if using 
water-seal outfit sterilize 30 minutes, if using a five-pound 
steam-pressure outfit sterilize 25 minutes, or if using a 
pressure-cooker outfit sterilize 20 minutes. Remove jars. 
Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test the joint. Wrap 
jars with paper to prevent bleaching and store. 

Egg Plant. — Remove the skin of the egg plant and 



368 AGRICULTURE AND 

slice across the fruit. Make slices about ^ or ^ inches 
thick. Blanch three times in boiling water to which has 
been added a tablespoon ful of salt per quart. Plunge into 
cold water and pack in glass jars. Fill with boiling hot 
water and add a level teaspoonful of salt and a little sugar 
to each quart. Put rubber and cap in position, not tight. 
(Cap and tip if using enameled tin cans.) If using hot- 
water bath outfit sterilize 60 minutes. If using water-seal 
outfit or a five-pound steam-pressure outfit sterilize 45 
minutes, or if using an aluminum pressure-cooker outfit 
sterilize 30 minutes. Remove jars. Tighten covers. In- 
vert to cool and test the joint. Wrap jars with paper to 
prevent bleaching and store. 

Corn and Tomato (Combination). — Blanch fresh corn 
on the cob 6 minutes. Cold dip. Cut corn from cob. Blanch 
tomatoes Ij^ minutes and cold dip. Remove skin and core. 
Chop tomatoes into medium pieces. Mix 2 parts of tomatoes 
with one part of corn and mix thoroughly. Pack in glass 
jars or tin cans. Add a level teaspoonful of salt, 34 cup 
sugar per quart. Put rubber and cap in position, not tight. 
(Cap and tip if using enameled tin cans.) If using hot- 
water bath outfit sterilize 90 minutes. If using water-seal 
outfit sterilize 75 minutes. If using a five-pound steam- 
pressure outfit, sterilize 60 minutes, or if using an alum- 
inum pressure-cooker outfit sterilize 45 minutes at 15 lbs. 
of steam. Remove jars. Tighten covers. Invert to cool 
and test the joint. Wrap jars with paper to prevent bleach- 
ing and store. 

Corn, Tomatoes and String Beans. (Combination). — 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 369 

Use one part of corn, one part of green string beans, and 
three parts of tomatoes. Blanch fresh corn on the cob 
for 10 minutes and cold dip. Cut corn from the cob, cutting 
from tip to butt. Prepare string beans and cut into con- 
venient lengths. Blanch 4 minutes and cold dip. Scald 
tomatoes 1 to 3 minutes and cold dip. Remove skin and 
core. Cut into medium pieces. Mix the three products 
thoroughly. Pack in glass jars or enameled tin cans. Put 
rubbers and caps in position, not tight. (Cap and tip if 
using tin cans.) If using hot-water bath outfit sterilize 
120 minutes, if using water-seal outfit sterilize 90 minutes, 
if using a five-pound steam-pressure outfit sterilize 60 min- 
utes, or if using an aluminum pressure-cooker outfit sterilize 
45 minutes at 15 lbs. of steam. Remove jars. Tighten 
covers. Invert to cool and test the joint. Wrap jars with 
paper to prevent bleaching and store. 

Chili Peppers. — Use cither red or green peppers. 
Place the peppers in the oven and bake until the skins 
separate from the pulp. Remove the skins. Take out seed 
and core if product is to be used for salads. Pack solid in 
glass jars or tin cans. Pour on boiling water and add one 
level teaspoon ful of salt and a little sugar, per pint. Put 
rubber and cap in position, not tight. (Cap and tip if using 
tin cans.) If using hot-water bath outfit sterilize 90 min- 
utes, if using water-seal outfit sterilize 75 minutes, if using 
a five-pound steam-pressure outfit sterilize 60 minutes, or if 
using an aluminum pressure-cooker outfit sterilize 40 min- 
utes. Remove jars. Tighten covers. Invert to cool and 



370 AGRICULTURE AND 

test the joint. Wrap jars with paper to prevent bleaching 
and store. 

Cabbage or Brussel Sprouts. — Use small solid heads. 
If cabbage, cut into convenient sections and remove core. 
Allow product to soak in cold salty water for 20 or 30 min- 
utes. Blanch 10 minutes. Cold dip. (See cauliflower.) 
Pack in glass jars or tin cans. Pour on boiling water and 
add a level teaspoonful of salt per pint. Put rubbers and 
cap in position, not tight. (Cap and tip if using enameled 
tin cans.) If using hot-water bath outfit sterilize 90 
minutes, if using water-seal outfit sterilize 75 minutes, 
if using a five-pound steam-pressure outfit sterilize 60 min- 
utes, or if using an aluminum pressure-cooker outfit sterilize 
45 minutes with 10 pounds of steam pressure. Remove 
jars. Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test the joint. 
Wrap jars with paper to prevent bleaching and store. 

Cauliflower. — Use the flowered portion. After soak- 
ing in cold salty water for 30 minutes blanch three minutes. 
Dip into cold water. Pack in glass jars or enameled tin 
cans. Fill with boiling water and add level teaspoonful of 
salt per quart. Put rubber and cap in position, not tight. 
(Cap and tip if using tin cans.) If using hot-water bath 
outfit sterilize 45 minutes, if using water-seal outfit 
sterilize 35 minutes, if using a five-pound steam-pres- 
sure outfit sterilize 40 minutes, or if using an aluminum 
pressure-cooker outfit sterilize 30 minutes. Remove jars. 
Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test the joint. Wrap 
jars with paper to prevent bleaching and store. 

Mushrooms. — Unless you are absolutely sure that you 
know a mushroom when you see it, do not run the risk of 
gathering and using for food what you may think are mush- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 371 

rooms. A very large number of people are poisoned every 
year because of carelessness along this line. There are 
many other plants of the mushroom-toadstool varieties that 
are very poisonous, and they resemble the edible mush- 
rooms very much. (See Farmers' Bulletin 204, "Cultiva- 
tion of IMushrooms.") 

Canning of Mushrooms, — AA^ash and trim the mush- 
rooms. If small, can them whole; if large, they may be 
cut into sections. Soak in cold salty water for 30 minutes. 
Blanch mushrooms in boiling water or steam for 10 min- 
utes. Remove and plunge quickly into very cold water. 
Pack in glass jars, and add boiling hot water to cover at 
once; one level teaspoonful of salt to the quart. Place rub- 
ber and cap in position, not tight. If using hot-water bath 
outfit sterilize 90 minutes, if using water-seal outfit sterilize 
60 minutes, if using a five-pound steam-pressure outfit ster- 
ilize 50 minutes, or if using an aluminum pressure-cooker 
outfit sterilize under 10 pounds of steam for 20 minutes. 
Remove jars. Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test 
joints. Wrap the glass jars in paper to prevent bleaching 
and store. 

If canning mushrooms in tin, always use vulcanized or 
lacquered cans. Do not fail to blanch and cold-dip before 
packing, and empty the mushrooms immediately after 
opening the tin can. 

Home Canning of Soups 
Taken from Circular N. R. 34, Series of Follow Up In- 
structions in Home Canning Club Work 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

After you have learned to can fruits and vegetables suc- 
cessfully, the next logical step is to transform meat scraps. 



372 AGRICULTURE AND 

bones, ligaments, the odds and ends of vegetables and ce- 
reals, into an economical as well as palatable product 
for the home — something that can in a few moments' time 
be prepared and made ready for use as a hot dish for the 
winter months. 

The canning of vegetable soups, purees and consommes 
is thoroughly practical, and should be a part of the canning 
work of every home. It will be a delight to the housewife 
to be able to reach to a shelf for a home-canned pack of 
soup, open it, heat and serve within a few moments of time. 

Cannmg Directions 

Soup Stock. — Secure 25 pounds of beef hocks, joints 
and bones containing marrow. Strip ofif fat and meat and 
crack bones with hatchet or cleaver. Place broken bones 
in a thin cloth sack and place the same in a large kettle 
containing 5 gallons of cold water. Simmer (do not boil) 
for 6 or 7 hours. Do not salt while simmering. Skim off 
all fat. This should make about 5 gallons of stock. Pack 
hot in glass jars, bottles, enameled or lacquered tin cans. 
Partially seal glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Sterilize 
40 minutes if using hot-water bath outfit; 30 minutes if 
using water-seal or five-pound steam-pressure outfit; 25 
minutes if using pressure-cooker outfit at 15 lbs. pressure. 

Checking List. — Supplies needed before making soup 
stock. Check with this list before beginning work : 25 lb. 
of beef bones, 10 gal. water. 

Vegetable Soup. — Soak y^ lb. lima beans and 1 lb. rice 
for 12 hours. Cook ^ lb. pearl barley for 2 hours. Blanch 



THE FARMING BUSINESS Z72, 

1 lb. carrots, 1 lb. onions, 1 medium-sized potato, and 1 red 
pepper for 3 minutes and dip all in cold water quickly. 
Prepare the vegetables and cut into small cubes. Mix 
thoroughly lima beans, rice, barley, carrots, onions, potatoes, 
red peppers. Fill glass jar or the enameled tin cans three- 
fourths full of the above mixture of vegetables and cereals. 
Make a smooth paste of ^ lb. of wheat flour and blend in 
5 gallons of soup stock. Boil 3 minutes and add 4 oz. salt. 
Pour this stock over vegetables and fill cans. Partially seal 
glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Sterilize 90 minutes if 
using the hot-water bath outfit ; 75 minutes if using a water- 
seal or five-pound steam-pressure outfit ; 30 minutes if using 
the pressure-cooker outfit at 15 lbs. pressure. 

Checking List. — Supplies needed before making soup. 
After filling above requirements, check with this list and 
then sterilize : 34 It), lima beans, 1 lb. rice, J/ lb. pearl 
barley, 1 lb. carrots, 1 lb. onions, 1 medium-sized potato, 1 
red pepper, ^^ lb. flour, 4 oz. salt, 5 gal. soup stock. 

Cream of Pea Soup. — Soak in cold water 8 lb. of dry 
peas overnight. Cook until soft. Mash fine. Add the 
mashed peas to 5^2 gal. of soup stock and bring to boil. 
Pass the boiling liquid through a fine sieve. Make a smooth 
paste of y2 lb. flour and add paste, 10 oz. of sugar, and 3 
oz. of salt to the soup stock. Cook until soup begins to 
thicken. Pack in glass jars or tin cans. Partially seal 
glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Process 90 minutes If 
using hot-water bath outfit ; 80 minutes if using water- 
seal outfit; 70 minutes if using five-pound steam-pressure 
outfit; 45 minutes at 15 lbs. pressure if using pressure- 
cooker outfit. 



374 AGRICULTURE AND 

Checking List. — 5^ gal. soup stock, 8 lb. dry peas, 3 
oz. salt, 10 oz. granulated sugar, 3^ lb. flour. 

Cream of Potato Soup. — Boil 1^ lb. of potatoes, sliced 
thin, and 5 gal. of soup stock for 10 minutes. Add 3 oz. 
of salt, 54 teaspoonful of pepper, and yi lb. of butter, and 
boil slowly for 5 minutes. Make 3 tablespoonfuls of flour 
into smooth paste and add to the above. Cook 3 minutes 
and pack in glass jars or tin cans while hot. Partially seal 
glass jars. Cap and tip cans. Sterilize 90 minutes if us- 
ing hot-water bath outfit ; 75 minutes if using water-seal out- 
fit ; 65 minutes if using five-pound steam-pressure outfit ; 45 
minutes if using a pressure-cooker outfit at 15 lbs. pressure. 

Checking List. — 5 gal. soup stock, 1^^ lb. thin sliced 
potatoes (culls will do), 3 oz. salt, y4 teaspoonful pepper 
(scant), y2 lb. butter, 3 tablespoonfuls flour. 

Bean Soup. — Soak 3 lb. of beans 12 hours in cold wa- 
ter. Cut 2 lb. of ham meat into ^-inch cubes and place 
in a small sack. Place beans, ham and 4 gals, of water 
in kettle and boil slowly until the beans are very soft. Re- 
move the ham and beans from the liquor and mash the 
beans fine. Return ham and mashed beans to the liquor 
and add 5 gal. of soup stock and seasoning, and bring to 
boil. Fill into glass jars or tin cans while hot. Partially seal 
glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Process 2 hours if using 
hot- water bath outfit ; 90 minutes if using water-seal outfit ; 
75 minutes if using five-pound steam-pressure outfit; 60 
minutes if using pressure-cooker outfit at 15 lbs. pressure. 

Checking List. — 5 gal. stock, 3 lb. beans, 2 lb. lean 
ham, 4 gal. water. Salt and pepper to taste. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



375 



Okra Soup. — Slice 8 lb. okra into thin slices the round 
way. Blanch 10 minutes and cold dip. Boil V/z lb. rice 




Utah home cauuing club member m her potato starch 
factory. 

for 25 minutes. Mix okra and rice and fill cans or jars half 
full. To 5 gal. soup stock add 5 oz. salt, }i teaspoonful 
of coriander seed, and yi teaspoonful of powdered cloves, 



376 AGRICULTURE AND 

and bring to boil. Fill remaining portion of jars or cans. 
Partially seal glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Process 
2 hours if using hot-water bath outfit; 90 minutes if using 
water-seal outfit; 75 minuutes if using five-pound steam- 
pressure outfit ; 60 minutes if using pressure-cooker outfit at 
15 lbs. pressure. 

Checking List. — 5 gal. soup stock (see No. 1), 8 lb. 
okra, }i teaspoonful coriander seed, ^4 teaspoonful pow- 
dered cloves, lJ/2 lb. rice, 5 oz. salt. 

Tomato Pulp for Cream of Tomato Soup. — Place to- 
matoes in a wire basket or piece of cheesecloth and plunge 
into boiling water from 1 to 3 minutes. Plunge into cold 
water. Remove the skin and core. Place tomatoes in 
kettle and boil 30 minutes. Pass tomato pulp through a 
sieve. Pack in glass jars or tin cans while hot, and add 
a level teaspoonful of salt per quart. Partially seal glass 
jars. (Cap and tip tin cans.) Sterilize 20 minutes if using 
hot-water bath outfit ; 18 minutes if using water-seal or five- 
pound steam-pressure outfit; 15 minutes if using pressure- 
cooker outfit. 

Cream of Tomato Soup from Canned Tomato Pulp. — 
Place the contents of a quart glass jar or No. 3 can of 
tomato pulp in kettle. Add % teaspoonful of baking soda, 
pepper and salt to taste, 2 teaspoon fuls of granulated 
sugar. Boil for 7 minutes. Place 1 quart of milk and 2 
tablespoonfuls of butter in a kettle and simmer for 7 min- 
utes. Add contents of tomato kettle to contents of milk 
kettle and boil 5 minutes. The product is then ready to serve. 

Checking List. — 1 qt. or No. 3 can tomato pulp, }^ tea- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS o/7 

spoonful baking soda, 2 teaspoon fuls granulated sugar, 1 qt. 
milk, 2 tablespoon fuls butter. Salt and pepper to taste. 

Chicken Soup Stock. — Place 30 lb. chicken in 10 gal. 
of cold water and simmer for 5 hours. Remove meat and 
bones and then strain. Add sufficient water to make 10 
gal. of stock. Fill glass jars or tin cans with hot stock. 
Partially seal glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. This stock 
is used to make soup where the term "chicken-soup stock" 
is used. Process 90 minutes if using hot-water bath outfit; 
75 minutes if using water-seal outfit; 60 minutes if using 
five-pound steam-pressure outfit; 45 minutes if using pres- 
sure-cooker outfit at 15 lbs. pressure. 

Checking List. — 30 lb. chicken, 10 gal. water. 

Chicken Broth with Rice. — For each gallon of soup 
stock use 12 oz. of rice. Boil rice 30 minutes. Fill jars 
or tin cans two-thirds full of rice and the remainder with 
soup stock. Partially seal glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. 
Process 90 minutes if using hot-water bath outfit ; 75 min- 
utes if using water-seal outfit; 60 minutes if using five- 
pound steam-pressure outfit ; 45 minutes if using pressure- 
cooker outfit at 15 lbs. pressure. 

Checking List. — 1 gal. chicken-soup stock, 12 oz. rice. 

Chicken Gumbo. — Cut 2 lb. ham into small cubes and 
boil 30 minutes. Mince 3 lb. chicken and chop ^ lb. 
onions fine. Make a smooth paste of ^ lb. flour. Add 
above to 5 gal. of chicken-soup stock. Then add 5<2 lb. 
butter and ^ lb. salt and boil 10 minutes. Then add 3 oz. 
powdered okra mixed with 1 pint water. Fill into glass 
jars or tin cans while hot. Partially seal glass jars. Cap 



378 AGRICULTURE AND 

and tip tin cans. Process 90 minutes if using hot-water 
bath outfit; 75 minutes if using water-seal outfit; 60 min- 
utes if using five-pound steam-pressure outfit; 45 minutes if 
using pressure-cooker outfit. 

Checking List. — 5 gal. chicken-soup stock, 3 lb. minced 
chicken, 2 lb. ham, ^ lb. onions, ^ lb. butter, ^ lb. salt, 
^ lb. flour, 3 oz. powdered okra. 

Vegetables (Mixed) Without Stock. — Many people 
would like vegetable soup during the winter season, but 
find if impracticable to secure the soup stock during the 
summer season when the vegetables are so abundant that 
they are rotting in the garden. It is suggested that the 
vegetable portion of the soup be canned during the summer 
and made available when the soup stock is prepared during 
the winter. It makes the preparation of soup a simple 
matter whenever the stock is available. 

Soak 6 lb. lima beans and 4 lb. dry peas over night. 
Boil each ^ hour. Blanch 16 lb. carrots, 6 lb. cabbage, 3 
lb. celery, 6 lb. turnips, 4 lb. okra, 1 lb. onions and 4 lb. 
parsley for 3 minutes and plunge quickly in cold water. 
Prepare vegetables and chop into small cubes. Chop the 
onions and celery extra fine. Mix all of the above thor- 
oughly and season to taste. Pack in glass jars or tin cans. 
Fill with boiling water and add a little sugar. Partially 
seal glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Process 90 minutes 
if using hot-water bath outfit; 60 minutes if using water- 
seal outfit or five-pound steam-pressure outfit ; 45 minutes 
if using pressure-cooker outfit. 

Checking List. — 16 lb. carrots (small), 6 lb. cabbage. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 379 

3 lb. celery (stems and leaves), 6 lb. turnips, 6 lb. lima 
beans, 4 lb. okra, 1 lb. onions, 4 lb. parsley, 4 lb. dry peas, 
salt and pepper to taste. 

It Is understood that when you have followed the above 
recipes faithfully and sterilized the required time that you 
will remove containers, seal, invert to cool and test joints, 
wrap and store in some manner as you do with fruits and 
vegetables. 

Note. — These recipes are prepared for the canning of 
soups in the home and for home consumption. Families using 
these recipes for sale within the state should consult the Food 
Commissioner of the State. When the products are packed for 
interstate or foreign shipment, the packer should consult the 
Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D, C, for regulations governing measures, labels, trade- 
marks and contents. The Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, should be con- 
sulted regarding meat-inspection regulations intended for inter- 
state or foreign shipment when canned soups contain definite 
portions of meat. 



380 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XXIII 
CULTURE OF FRUITS AND NUTS 

FRUIT and nut farming have in recent years enjoyed a 
remarkable growth. The home fruit garden is coming 
to be considered no less important than the vegetable .gar- 
den, and large commercial orchards are now an important 
factor on many of the reclamation projects of the semi-arid 
regions of the West and Southwest as well as in the humid 
sections of the United States. Milhons of acres of land in 
all parts of the United States, especially in the South and 
in the dry regions, are yet available for the fruit and nut in- 
dustry. The use of fruits and nuts as a part of the daily 
food supply is also rapidly extending to include almost 
every family in both this country and Europe. 

The Home Fruit Garden 

The home fruit garden, like the vegetable garden, should 
be planned for cultivation by means of horses. The rows 
should therefore run the long way of the garden. The 
fruit garden may well join the vegetable garden, and be 
approximately the same size, about ninety by two hundred 
and forty feet for a farm garden. The entire plat will 
then contain about one acre of ground. 

All fruit trees should be treated with a dormant spray, 
applied at some time during the dormant season. A sec- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



381 



ond spraying should be applied just after the leaf buds 
burst, and a third at blossoming time. Apples should be 
sprayed just as the petals fall, and pears just before the 
blossoms open. It is fully as important to spray at the 
right time as to use the right mixture. The successful 
orchardist must understand his fruit trees and the habits of 




Fruit farms and orchards, Southwest. 

their enemies, and understand the control of the common 
diseases. 



Commercial Citrus Fruit Orchards 

The citrus fruits constitute one of our most important 
orchard crops. The orange, the lemon and the grapefruit 
are coming into even greater use than the apple or other 
staple fruits. The lime and the tangarine are also growing 



382 AGRICULTURE AND 

in favor, and are finding a place in the citrus orchards 
of the South and Southwest. Improvement in transporta- 
tion and the use of refrigerator cars make it possible to 
deliver these subtropical fruits to any part of the country 
in excellent condition. The citrus fruit industry is a highly 
specialized business, and requires high-grade intelligence, 
scientific knowledge and good business management. 

Citrus orchard territory. — Florida and California are 
recognized as our leading citrus fruit states. The whole 
southern tier of states is developing the industry success- 
fully, however, and some of them bid fair to rival the two 
mother states. There are to be found large and profitable 
orchards of oranges, grapefruit, limes and lemons in the 
southern portions of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Louis- 
iana, Alabama, Mississippi and Georgia. 

The orange. — The orange came originally from x^sia, 
but now it is a native of nearly every country where a 
tropical or subtropical climate prevails. It is highly de- 
veloped in Porto Rico, Hawaii, the PhiHppine Islands, 
South America, China, Japan, Spain, Portugal, Sicily and 
Asia Minor. The fruit is shipped from these countries 
in great boatloads to the markets of the world. 

When Columbus and his men landed in America they 
found two kinds of citrus fruit growing in Florida, the 
rough lemon of the Everglades and the sour orange of 
the hummock lands farther north. When the Spaniards 
came a little later they planted the seeds of their cultivated 
oranges. From these seeds there developed the great seed- 
ling orange groves of the South. At the present time, 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



383 





A typical Arizona orange tree. 



384 AGRICULTURE AND 

however, there have been developed many budded and 
grafted varieties, and the orange now commonly known as 
the navel orange. In Florida alone there are hundreds of 
varieties. There is still shipped out to the northern markets 
a great deal of the seedling stock, but more and more the 
navel orange is coming to claim the best markets. The 
Parson Brown is a very early variety, sweet and whole- 
some. The Pineapple is somewhat later and is considered 
by many as the most delicious of southern varieties. The 
Florida Valencia is a late variety resembling the California 
Valencia. A considerable difiference in flavor and texture 
exists between Florida oranges and those grown in the 
Southwest owing to the fact that the former are usually 
grown under humid conditions and the latter by irriga- 
tion. 

The lemon. — The lemon tree grows very much the 
same as the orange except that it is smaller and has a 
lighter colored leaf. The flowers are tinged with red and 
the fruits is of a paler yellow with a distinct acid flavor. 
While the oranges are used largely for breakfast dishes, 
desserts and for general eating purposes, the lemon 
is used for sirups, beverages, flavoring extracts, etc. 

The grapefruit. — The grapefruit tree Is also in many 
respects like the orange tree. The fruit is larger and of a 
pale yellow color. The flesh is of a lighter texture than 
the orange. Is sour and sometimes bitter. It is used ex- 
tensively throughout the United States, and In fact much 
of the rest of the world as a very palatable breakfast fruit. 
It will grow In practically all sections where the orange 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 385 

can be produced. The grapefruit is a native of the Ma- 
layan and Polynesian Islands. It is a more hardy plant 
than the orange, and will adapt itself more readily to the 
local conditions. The grapefruit industry is at present 
developing very rapidly in Florida, California and several of 
the gulf states. 

The lime. — The lime resembles the lemon in ap- 
pearance, excepting that it is smaller. It is cultivated ex- 
tensively in the West Indies, Florida, southern Mississippi, 
part of Alabama and to some extent in other gulf states. 
The tree is more thorny than other citrus trees. It bears 
wiiite flowers. The fruit has a large amount of acid in its 
make-up, and is used extensively for beverages and sirups. 

Soil and climate requirements. — Citrus fruits require 
a deep, fertile and well-drained loam soil. The soil needs 
lime, and should be kept rich in humus and nitrogen. All 
citrus fruits demand a warm., tropic or subtropical climate, 
a great deal of sunshine and freedom from cold winds, 
frost and cold nights. One of the greatest dangers to the 
citrus fruit industry of the United States is from frosts and 
the uncertainty of orchard localities in the matter of early 
and late freezing. The killing of fruit buds by late spring 
frosts must be met by some of the special methods, such as 
whitewashing, smudging and heating by means of oil pots. 
The last named method is probably the most used. 

Cultivation and management. — No type of farming 
requires greater care in the matter of management and 
cultural methods. The orchard bed should be prepared by 
deep plowing and a thorough pulverizing of the top soil. 



386 



AGRICULTURE AND 




C-T^, 



> o 



1% 

OH 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 387 

The soil should be kept free from weeds and a constant dust 
mulch maintained throughout the season for the conserva- 
tion of the moisture. From the fact that an orchard will 
continue bearing- for years there is great danger of depleting 
the soil of its fertility and making the orchard unpro- 
ductive, hence the necessity of cover crops, the plowing 
under of legumes, the adding of barnyard manure, lime, 
potash and other fertilizing material from time to time as 
they are needed. In matters of tillage and cultivation the 
citrus orchard should be as carefully managed as a corn- 
field or a vegetable garden. The irrigated orchards of the 
Southwest require a little different type of management 
owing to the peculiar conditions under which the land is 
handled. IMost of the irrigation of citrus orchards is done 
by surface irrigation, bringing the water from its source 
to the head of the orchard by means of lateral ditches and 
then distributing by sublaterals, furrows or corrugations. 
The water is conveyed from this head ditch down through 
the orchard and is absorbed by the root system by means 
of radiation. 

Annual pruning, thinning and spraying of the orchards 
are of greatest importance in the management of citrus 
fruits. The neglect of these usually means not only a de- 
feat for the following year, but an enormous loss for a 
number of succeeding years. 

Picking and packing. — Great care and skill are re- 
quired in the picking and packing of all citrus fruit. In 
the best commercial orchards we find great packing plants 
erected at considerable expense where the fruit is not only 



388 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Bud grafting. 

1. Showing position of knife in removing biifl. 2. Rucl ready- 
to be grafted. 3. Face of bud, to be treated and fitted to 
stem or tree trunlv. Use grafting wax and tben Iiind in 
position. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



389 



sorted and carefully crated, but washed and polished and 
then wrapped and placed in neat packages or in boxes 
ready for the market. Those who would make a success 





A cleft Set to bring Grafting 

graft. in contact wax. 

with growing 

tissue. 



Itoot and stem 

cut ready for 

grafting. 



of the citrus fruit business need to give a great deal of time 
and attention to this particular phase of the work. 

Marketing. — Most of the citrus fruit at the present 



390 AGRICULTURE AND 

time is marketed through various associations. The indi- 
vidual grower is at a disadvantage when it comes to mar- 
keting his products, first, because he does not have enough 
in quantity to command the attention of leading buyers; 
second, because he can not secure the same transportation 
rates given to larger concerns; third, because he does not 
have time to study the markets and so exercise the best busi- 
ness judgment in a matter so essential to a profitable return 
from his fruit. The importance of the marketing end of this 
business is shown by the fact that some of the largest grow- 
ers are investing thousands of dollars in packing and mar- 
keting facilities where in former years the packing was 
done in the orchards and marketing attended to only in a 
sort of haphazard way. Many of the companies and coop- 
erative packing plants in California and Florida cost up- 
ward of ten thousand dollars. 

OtJier Important Fruits of the South and West 

The pineapple. — This is one of the desirable and 
promising fruits of southern Florida, southern California 
and southern Texas. The range of its territory will un- 
doubtedly be considerably expanded within the next few 
years. Much of the region in the southern sections of the 
gulf states, as well as southern New Mexico and Arizona, 
especially when the land in the latter states has been re- 
claimed and water made available, will permit the growing 
of this fruit. The pineapple is widely used for sauces, sal- 
ads and other desserts, as well as for flavoring extracts, 
marmalades, etc. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 391 

The olive. — The olive is one of the oldest fruits 
known to the world. It is fast becoming a profitable fruit 
industry in our southern states, especially in southern Cali- 
fornia. The olive tree is of a low branching, evergreen 
variety from fifteen to thirty-five feet high. It has small 
dark green leaves, and a dark green fruit which turns a 
brownish black when ripe. It is native to Africa, Asia and 
Greece. The commercial orchardists are growing the olive 
in Italy, France, Spain, Greece, Asia Minor, Mexico, Peru, 
Algeria, Tunis, and in the United States. Some very large 
commercial orchards are found in southern California. The 
trees will begin to bear when from six to eight years old. 
A good tree of this age will produce from five to eight gal- 
lons of oil, and the yield increases gradually up to as high 
as fifty gallons. An olive tree will bear profitably from 
forty to fifty years, but the tree itself will continue to live 
and appear hardy and strong for upward of a hundred 
years. 

Figs. — The fig is a very valuable and profitable fruit. 
It grows well in Florida, southern Alabama, Mississippi, 
Louisiana, Texas, southern Utah, Arizona and southern 
California. The tree is propagated from cuttings taken 
from roots in the fall of the year or in early spring. The 
fig tree produces every year, and at the age of two or three 
years a tree will bear a considerable crop. 

Peaches and pears. — Peaches and pears are grown 
extensively in practically the entire southern half of the 
United States. The fruits are very desirable not only for 
practical food dishes and dessert, but for canning. The 



392 



AGRICULTURE AND 



peach and pear industry has greatly developed in recent 
years under more scientific management, the adaptation of 
varieties to climate and other local conditions. Increased 
facilities for transportation, cold storage, etc., have given 




Four-year-old pear tree, Idaho. Orchard club members gather- 
ing fruit for home cauuing purposes. 



great encouragement to this fruit industry. Peaches espec- 
ially will not stand much handling, and are too perishable a 
product to ship a great distance from grower to consumer. 
Success in the handling of these orchards depends very 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 393 

largely upon the amount of business management and in- 
telligence exercised. 

Nut Farming 

The largest commercial nut orchards of the United 
States are found in the southern and southwestern states. 
This industry has greatly developed during the last fifteen 
years, and as the cultural methods become better under- 
stood the area will be greatly increased. Nuts constitute 
a very important part of our daily diet. They furnish a 
very excellent substitute for meats, which are increasing 
so rapidly in cost to the consumer. Most of the nut trees 
grown in this country are considered very excellent trees 
for the farmer's wood lot, and for ornamental or shade pur- 
poses in our village and city lots. Some of the leading com- 
mercial varieties are the almond, English walnut, pecan and 
filbert. 

The almond. — The almond tree very much resembles 
the peach tree in size, foliage and flower. The almond is 
a very valuable nut because of the high percentage of 
food to shell. When the fruit ripens the almond brealcs 
open, the pulp dries, and the nut falls to the ground. It 
is then gathered and prepared for the market. The largest 
almond groves are found in the southern half of the states 
of Florida, Texas and California. Almonds were brought 
to this country from Spain and countries adjoining the 
Mediterranean Sea. They are used very extensively for 
confections, cooking purposes, medicine, flavoring extracts 
and sometimes for perfumery. 



394 AGRICULTURE AND 

The English walnut. — The English walnut is one of 
the largest and finest nut trees of the South and Southwest. 
It will bear profitably at the age of six years and will con- 
tinue to bear for thirty years. The walnut industry has 
not developed in this country nearly so far as 'is possible. 
It is conceded by the authorities that this nut will grow 
profitably in eight or ten states, yet at the present time it 
is confined largely to the southern half of California and 
southern Texas. It is found growing fairly well in states 
as far north as Illinois, Indiana, Delaware, Virginia, Mary- 
land, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 

The pecan. — One of the most profitable nut indus- 
tries of America is that of the pecan. The tree grows 
wild in a number of our states and is cultivated in prac- 
tically all of the southern region, and particularly by some of 
the largest commercial orchardists in southern California, 
Texas, Louisiana, southern Mississippi and Georgia. The 
pecan industry has only fairly begun, and it is probable 
that the area and output will be greatly increased. The 
trees are produced in practically the same way as the citrus 
fruit trees, by budding and grafting. They are set about 
forty feet apart and will begin to bear at from five to eight 
years of age, and continue to bear from twenty-five to 
forty years. There are a large number of varieties of pe- 
cans. The best commercial varieties are the ones known 
as the Louisiana and the Texas Paper Shell. The tree is 
valued not only for its food qualities, but also for orna- 
mental and shade purposes. 

Other varieties of nuts. — The United States was at 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



395 



one time well covered with nut trees in the forests from 
the east to the west and as far north as the Canadian line. 
The deforestation which is constantly going on has, how- 



CURRENT VEAR 
FRUIT BUDS 
FORl^ED^ 1914 



FRUIT 5CAR 

1911 _ , 
FINE FRUIT^/> 

FRUIT 5CAR 
1909 

GROWTH- 
1903 

GROWTH-"-' 
1906 ^" 

FRUIT SCAlT 
1905 



FRUIT SCAR 

-GROWTH 1913 

GROWTH 1912 
NO FRUIT 

.GROWTH (911 



„:rGRO\AiTH 1910 
^FRUIT SCAR 1910 

><'FRUIT PROBABLV 




PIP NOT RIPEN 

FRUIT SCAR 
1908 
-.GROWTH 
'^ 1907 
FRUIT SCAR 
1906 

GROWTH 
1905 

OLPER 
5CAR5 



Hlstovy as It Is \VrIftcii on an Apple Twig 



ever, greatly reduced the number of wild nut trees. The 
black walnut, butternut, hickory nut, chinquapin, chestnut, 
and hazelnut are all fast becoming extinct as wild nuts, 



396 



AGRICULTURE AND 



and sooner or later, in order to conserve these varieties, 
it will be necessary to produce them as domestic trees. 
Every farmer should be especially interested in including 
the nut trees in his work of reforestation or the develop- 
ment of his farm wood lot. In setting out shade trees in 
the cities, on vacant lots, in dooryards and back yards a care- 
ful selection of nut trees will be well worth while. 

The apple. — The apple is without question one of the 
most important of all American fruits. The fruit is used 
in practically every home and is no longer considered a lux- 
ury, but a daily necessity. Apples are grown in all the 
eastern, central and western states with profit. The cul- 
ture and success of the apple orchard depends on good 
management, clean culture and fertile soil, pruning, spray- 
ing and the business handling of the products fully as much 
as is required with any other fruit. 



Score-Card for Apples — Exhibit of Ten 
Name of Variety Where Grown 



Score of Points. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Average 
Score. 


Uniformity of ten 
Samples 

Freedom from blem- 
ishes __ _ _ 


- 


- 


- 


- 


20 
20 


Utility and market 

value 

Trueness to Type 

Size, Form and Color- 


20 
20 
20 


Total 


100 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 397 

Explanation of Score Points 

1. Uniformity of Samples — Has particular reference to the 
uniformity of size, form, color, of all ten apples constituting 
the exhibit. 

2. Freedom From Blemishes — This has particular reference 
as to whether the apples are free from rust, scale, scab, infec- 
tion, worm eaten or broken surfaces. Every apple making 
up the exhibition should have a smooth, clear, clean coat or 
skin. 

3. Utility and Market Value — This has reference to the prac- 
tical and commercial value of apples for eating, cooking and 
marketing. (Will they prove of superior value in home for 
eating or cooking and will they command a uniformly high 
price on the market.) 

4. Trueness to Type — This refers especially to the type of 
variety and in scoring upon this point, you should consider 
very carefully as to whether the samples conform properly 
to the size, form and color required for the type or variety they 
represent and also as to the locality requirements in which they 
are grown. 

5. Size, Form, Color — In scoring these points, the question 
of the market requirements in size, form and color, should be 
considered. An apple above average size, clear in color and 
of true form, should be accepted. (Color has reference to 
whether the fruit is red, green, striped, blush, high russet, etc.) 
Clear and distinct coloring or blush should not be considered 
of great importance, uniformity should not be considered under 
this score. 

Note. — The main object of a score-card of this kind is to 
teach a standard of perfection and call, attention to the points 
that make up the standards. 





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THE FARMING BUSINESS 399 



CHAPTER XXIV 
GARDEN AND ORCHARD SPRAYS 

POISONOUS sprays for the destruction of insects and 
fungi of gardens and orchards have come into general 
use. Upon their successful application often depends the 
value of the crop, both as to quantity and quality. Not in- 
frequently an entire failure of yield results from the attack 
of these pests when they are not destroyed in time. Wormy 
and scabby apples, rotting peaches and plums, blighted ber- 
ries and diseased* vegetables prove the necessity for some 
effective means of stopping their ravages. 

The purpose of the two classes of mixtures, fungicides 
and insecticides, is indicated by the name applied; the cide 
in each word means to kill. Only the more important and 
common fungicides and insecticides will be described here. 

Bordeaux Mixture 

Bordeaux mixture is one of the most successful and 
widely used fungicides. Used at proper strength it is harm- 
less to most plants, though it has been found injurious to 
some, especially plums and, in less degree, peaches. It will 
also stain foliage and fruit upon which it falls. 

Composition. — Bordeaux mixture Is made when 
needed, of copper sidphate (blue vitriol) and lime. The 



400 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Ci-op ironi jour ^pniyed peach trees; inie basket of scabby fruit 
at the left; the remainder sound. 




Crop from (same orchard referred to above) four unsprayed 
peach trees. Sound fruit in three basliets at left ; the remain- 
der scabby. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 401 

strength may be varied, depending on the required use. The 
proportions most generally accepted are : 

4 pounds of copper sulphate. 
6 pounds of fresh lime. 
SO gallons of water. 

The copper sulphate is the active agent in killing the 
fungi, while the lime prevents injury to the plant. Besides 
this "4-6-50" mixture, other formulas frequently used are 
of the proportions 4-4-50, and 5-5-50. 

Making the mixture. — When but a small amount of 
spraying is to be done the only equipment required for 
making Bordeaux mixture is a fifty-gallon barrel, two twen- 
ty-five gallon tubs, buckets and a fine-mesh sieve. 

Fill one of the smaller tubs with water, and suspend 
just below the surface four pounds of copper sulphate in a 
loose bag, giving it time to dissolve. This will require 
about an hour, though the process can be hastened by using 
hot water. Slake six pounds of lime in the other tub, us- 
ing hot water and reducing the lime to a paste. When the 
lime has cooled, dilute to twenty-five gallons. 

Now stir the contents of the tubs, and pour bucketfuls 
of each mixture simultaneously through a sieve into the 
larger barrel, making sure that the streams mix. Stir well, 
and the compound is ready for the spraying machine. 

Use. — The amount needed for a garden can be judged 
from the fact that a tree in full leaf and having a spread 
of twenty-five feet will require about four gallons of the 
mixture. !Most beginners use too little, hence fail to 
get the best results. 



402 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Bordeaux mixture is not effective against insects. If, 
however, arsenate of lead in the proportion of two pounds to 
each barrel of the mixture be combined with it, the com- 
pound will serve as a check on both insects and fungous 
diseases. Scab, apple blotch, bitter rot, wilt, mildew and 
brown rot are controlled by Bordeaux mixture. 




Ducliess aiililc's. <i:n\\ n^^j i'i's\<.i>. of pUUCture^ "i mh- i.iuiU cur- 

culio. Tills iujuiy could have beeu saved by proper spraying. 

Lime-Sulphur Mixture 

The lime-sulphur mixture, besides being an insecticide 
for certain plant insects, is also a fungicide serving the same 
general purpose as Bordeaux mixture. It has the advantage 
of not injuring certain plants, such as peaches and plums, 
to which Bordeaux mixture is not adapted. Some fruit 
growers are coming to employ it as their principal fungi- 
cide. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



403 



Composition. — The strength of the mixture may- 
vary, the proportion of the ingredients commonly being : 

8 pounds of flour of sulphur. 
8 pounds of fresh lime. 
50 gallons of water. 

Making the mixture. — The lime-sulphur compound 
may be made by several different processes, one of the sim- 




Spraj'iug aiipie trees. 

plest of which is the self-boiling process. To make the self- 
boiled mixture, put eight pounds of lime to slake, and while 
the slaking process is going on, sift over the lime eight 
pounds of finely powdered sulphur. Stir constantly, adding 
water until a thin paste is secured. Dilute to fifty gallons, 
and strain before using. 

Lime-sulphur may be purchased ready for use. Al- 
though it costs slightly more than the home-made product, 



404 AGRICULTURE AND 

the time saved makes the commercial form cheaper if but 
a small amount is required. 

Use. — Lime-sulphur controls scale insects and cur- 
cullo, as well as such fungous diseases as scab, leaf curl, 
brown rot, etc. Arsenate of lead may be used with this 
mixture also. 

Arsenate of Lead 

Arsenate of lead is one of the most important stomach 
insecticides known, and has largely taken the place of Paris 
green with most fruit growers. It seems to be palatable 
to all garden insects. It adheres well to foliage, hence 
does not easily wash off in showers as does Paris green. It 
will not injure plants no matter how strong the solution. 
And it also acts as a fungicide, especially when mixed with 
lime-sulphur. 

Composition. — Arsenate of lead is easily compounded, 
the usual formula being: 

22 ounces arsenate of lead dissolved in 2 gallons of warm 
water. 
8 ounces arsenate of soda dissolved in 1 gallon of water. 
(Use wooden pail in each case.) 

The two solutions are now poured together and diluted 
with water to make a mixture of fifty gallons, then it is 
ready to spray. 

Arsenate of lead may also be procured in the form of 
a paste ready to dilute for the spraying machine. Three 
pounds of the commercial paste will make fifty gallons of 
spray. It will hardly pay to go to the trouble of mixing the 
compound at home, since the ready-made product usually 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 405 

costs no more than the ingredients for making the mix- 
ture. 

Use. — The arsenate of lead mixture may be used 
alone or with fungicides for destroying nearly the whole 
range of biting insects attacking garden fruits. It has proved 
of the greatest service, especially in the spraying of apples. 

Paris Green 

Paris green is one of the oldest and best known of the 
insect poisons. Several thousand tons are used each year 
for this purpose. 

Composition. — Paris green is often prepared for 
spraying by simply dissolving from four to eight ounces in 
fifty gallons of water. The standard formula, however, is : 

4 ounces of Paris green. 

V2 pound of lime. 

50 gallons of water. '' 

The lime is to be slaked and mixed with the water. The 
Paris green is mixed to the form of paste in a small quan- 
tity of water, and then added to the water. 

Use. — Paris green may be used in combination with 
the Bordeaux mixture, but not with lime-sulphur. When 
mixing it with Bordeaux, the Paris green should be com- 
bined with the diluted lime before it is brought in contact 
with the copper sulphate. 

Kerosene Emulsion 

Kerosene is one of the best of contact insecticides. A 
small particle of it on any part of the body means certain 
death to any insect. Pure kerosene, however, will injure 



406 AGRICULTURE AND 

most plants, hence must be used in a mixture. The best 
of these is what is known as kerosene emulsion. 

Composition. — The formula for the mixture commonly 
used is : 

V2 pound hard laundry soap shaved fine. 

1 gallon of soft water. 

2 gallons of kerosene. 

Making the emulsion. — One of the advantages in the 
use of this spray is the ease with which it can be made. 
Dissolve the soap in one gallon of boiling water; remove 
from the stove and at once add two gallons of kerosene. 
Stir while cooling until a soft, butter-like mass is obtained. 
Dilute one part of this stock solution with ten or twelve 
parts of water as needed for spraying. 

Use. — Kerosene emulsion may be used on all kinds 
of tender foliage without injury. It will control the vari- 
ous kinds of plant lice, slugs, etc. 

The Resin-Lime Mixture 

One of the difficulties in using many of the insecticides 
and fungicides is that they do not adhere well to the smooth 
foliage of the plants. The resin-lime mixture is often used 
in combination with other compounds to insure their stick- 
ing to the plants until they have done their work. 

Composition. — The formula employed is: 

5 pounds of pulverized resin. 

1 pound of concentrated lye. 

1 pint of fish or some other animal oil. 

5 gallons of w^ater. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 407 

This mixture is the stock solution, which is still further 
diluted as used. 

Making the mixture. — The oil, resin and one gallon 
of cold water are to be put into an iron kettle and heated 




A small hand spray. 

until the resin softens. Add the lime and stir well. Then 
add four gallons of hot water and boil until a little mixed 
with cold water gives a clear amber-colored liquid. Add 
water to make up for what has boiled away, making five 
gallons of the compound. 



408 AGRICULTURE AND 

Use. — This spray, besides causing other mixtures to 
adhere to the foliage of plants, is itself an excellent contact 
insecticide. Its principal efifect is through making a smoth- 
er-coating over the body of the Insect. It Is used in 
some regions as a dormant wash for the control of scale 
insects. When used with Paris green or Bordeaux, two 
gallons of resin-lime compound are mixed with eight gal- 
lons of water, and this added to forty gallons of the spray. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 409 



CHAPTER XXV 
WEEDS 

ONE of the most serious problems confronting the 
farmer is his trouble with and complete mastery of 
weeds. A weed has been defined as a plant growing out of 
the place where it is wanted. Any plant may become a 
weed when it insists on growing in the wrong place, when 
it spreads rapidly or when it brings on conditions hostile to 
the growth and prosperity of desired or cultivated crops. 
If the weed is particularly injurious, if it is unsightly, un- 
usually persistent or very troublesome, it is classed as a 
noxious weed. 

Classification of Weeds 

Like other plants, weeds may be classified into groups 
in accordance with their length of life and consequent 
manner of growth and their method of reproduction. 

Annuals. — Weeds are called annuals when they spring 
up from the seed, grow to full maturity, produce seed for 
the next crop and die, all in the same year. Among many 
examples of annuals are the foxtail, ragweed, smartweed, 
Spanish needle and mustard. 

Biennials. — Biennial weeds are those that spring up 
from the seed and produce a leaf and stem growth the first 



410 AGRICULTURE AND 

season. The leaf and stem may die down during the 
winter but the next spring the roots send up a stem shoot 
which produces flowers and seeds, after which the plant 
dies. The seeds are then ready to start the life cycle over 
again. Familiar examples of biennials are mullein, bull 
thistle, wild carrot and black-eyed Susan. 

Perennials. — Perennial weeds are those whose roots 
live on from year to year and do not require reseeding in 
order to assure the continuance of their lives. Familiar ex- 
amples of weeds of this class are quack-grass, milkweed, 
or horsenettle, and the dandelion. 

Many classes of weeds die out under conditions of 
cultivation which are hostile to their growth and welfare. 
Few classes of the prairie-growing weeds are now to be 
found in the older regions of the country. Marsh weeds 
disappear when the wet lands are drained. But in the place 
of the disappearing classes of weeds, new varieties are 
constantly appearing. Many of the weeds that are now so 
troublesome have been brought to us by immigration from 
Europe. It is said that more than six hundred species of 
weeds have been introduced into New England since the 
first cutting of the forests. 

Damage Done by Weeds 

The amount of damage done by weeds is almost incalcu- 
lable. It has been carefully estimated that American farm- 
ers lose at least three hundred millions of dollars a year 
from the ravages of their weed enemies. 

Add to this direct loss from weeds the labor required 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 411 

to free crops from their presence, and the indictment against 
these intruders is greatly increased in its strength. 

We must not forget however that on the other hand 
weeds do some good as legumes and cover crops and protect 
against injuries caused by erosion of soils. There are 
other important duties not credited to them by farmers 
and experts. 

How Weeds Injure the Farm 

Weeds always cut down the yield of crops. A field 
can not successfully grow weeds and a maximum crop of 
grain at the same time. The weeds rob the plants of the 
room, the light, the plant food and the much-needed mois- 
ture which should go to the production of the crop. Two 
adjoining fields, one of which was badly infested with stink- 
weed, and the other field kept clean, showed a yield of 
forty bushels of oats to the acre for the clean field and only 
fifteen for the weedy field. Stunted stalks of corn which 
have been choked by weeds, clover strangled by dodder, 
oats crowded in spots so that they ripen unevenly and show 
irregularity of stand and yield are familiar examples of 
the effects of weeds. 

Weeds usually an enemy. — Weeds do not injure 
plants solely by robbing and crowding them, however. Cer- 
tain weeds seem to poison the soil and produce conditions 
affecting the health of the crop. Weeds also furnish a 
harbor for noxious insects and for fungous diseases of 
plants. It is known that a number of the worst enemies of 



412 AGRICULTURE AND 

farm crops are thus protected and encouraged by certain 
weed hosts. 

In addition to all this, many weeds are unsightly. They 
always advertise a farm adversely and are a poor recom- 
mendation for its owner or tenant. Weedy fields actually 
reduce the market value of farm land, and a prospective 
buyer may well hesitate to purchase acres which will require 
time and labor to free from the weeds that are sure, unless 
checked, to defeat the manager in production of maximum 
crops. 

Hozv Weeds Spread 

Probably the greatest agency in the spreading of weeds 
is unscreened grain or farm seed. Practically all of the 
small grains have weed seed mixed with the grain and 
unless the seed is cleansed, the farmer actually plants the 
weeds which later must be eradicated if his crop is not to 
suffer. No one should sow weed seed. There is plenty of 
it distributed to his land from other sources which he can 
not control. The farmer who lives in a state that has no 
pure seed law is particularly liable to imposition in purchas- 
ing seed from other states. For example, Canada has very 
strict laws on the subject of pure seed for use on Canadian 
farms. As a result much seed which can not legally be sold 
in Canada is sent across into the States where it finds a 
market. Similarly, seed that can not safely be sold in 
Indiana, which has a stringent seed law, may be shipped to 
border states which lack such laws. 

Even comparatively pure seed contains many weeds. 
One sample of approved seed showed one and one-half 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 413 

per cent, of weed seed, which equaled about fifty-nine 
thousand weed seeds to the bushel of grain. 

Various agencies for carrying weed seed. — Hay, 
straw and manure are other means of distributing weed 
seeds. Hay or straw that is shipped from one section 
of the country to another is almost sure to result in the 
distribution of certain weeds. The seeds of some weeds 
are carried great distances by the wind. This is particularly 
true of such plants as thistle, milkweed and dandelion, 
whose seeds are provided with wings or sails which enable 
them to carry great distances. Even such seeds as the rag- 
weed, millet and the grains of oats and wheat have been 
known to carry several miles by high winds. It is easy to 
see, therefore, that the weeds grown on the land of a care- 
less farmer injure not him alone, but also make trouble 
and expense for all his neighbors who live in the direction 
of the prevailing winds. Running water is also responsible 
for the distribution of weed seeds, and particularly is this 
true of spring or fall floods after the ground is frozen so 
that the water can not sink into the soil. 

Birds, while they are good weed fighters, are also dis- 
tributers of weed seed. All farm animals in some degree 
carry the seed of weeds from place to place. The same 
may be true of farm tools; for example, quack-grass may 
easily be carried from field to field by the teeth of the 
harrow. Thrashing machines, clover hullers and wheels of 
other machines may distribute large quantities of weed seed 
as they move from farm to farm or travel along the road- 
way. 



414 AGRICULTURE AND 

Fighting the Weeds 

Weeds must be fought. Left to themselves they will 
multiply until they have taken possession of our fields. It 
is a part of the education of every farmer to know at sight 
all the most troublesome weeds of his neighborhood. Not 
only should he be able to recognize the plant, but he should 
know the seed whenever and wherever it is seen. 

Clean the seed. — No careful farmer will sow seed that 
he does not know to be reasonably clean of weeds. He 
will be so anxious to be on the safe side that he will take 
no chances, but will use a fanning mill and run all seed 
through, it before planting. He will be inquisitive, if not 
suspicious, concerning seed shipped from a distance, and 
will make sure that he is not adding to his weed troubles 
before he makes a purchase of foreign grown seed. 

Rotate the crops. — Rotation of crops is one of the 
most fruitful methods of handhng the weed question. 
Weeds which escape annihilation in the'Vnethods of cultiva- 
tion used in one crop may be destroyed by the different 
cultivation required in another variety of crop. Pasturing 
weedy ground with sheep or goats is a simple and easy 
method of clearing out certain weeds. Heavy crops of 
buckwheat, rape, hemp or millet if sown thickly, will 
smother out most perennial weeds. In fact the simplest and 
easiest, if not always the most practical way of keeping 
weeds out is to grow something else so thickly upon the 
soil that the weeds have no chance. 

Cultivate. — In all cultivated crops the remedy against 
weeds after they are once started is, of course, thorough 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 415 

cultivation. The weedy corn-field proclaims to all observers 
that its owner did not cultivate sufficiently to control his 
worst enemy. Some few weeds of the most obnoxious sort 
need to be dug out wherever they are found. If the patch 
is small and the weeds really noxious, this will not only pay 
but it is the only safe way. 

Develop community sentiment. — Above all, it is nec- 
essary to cultivate a community sentiment against weeds. 
All concerned should promote and obey laws against the 
selling of weed seed in grain intended for planting. A 
further requisite is to cultivate and enforce laws requiring 
the cutting of weeds along roadways, railroads, reserva- 
tions and in other public places. If this is not done the 
farms adjoining such weed patches are seeded afresh each 
season, and require much additional labor and expense to 
keep them clear of the weed nuisance. Every foot of road- 
way in the United States should be kept so clear of weeds 
that none are allowed to grow seed from season to season. 
The small amount of money required to bring about this 
result would be abundantly repaid in the larger crops upon 
adjoining farms. The sentiment should also develop to the 
point where no careless farmer can remain in good standing 
in his community while he is constantly seeding his neigh- 
bors' farms with weeds profusely grown upon his own farm. 



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THE FART^IING BUSINESS 427 

A poster bulletin of the University of Wisconsin Ex- 
periment Station contains the following: 

HELP FIGHT THESE WEEDS 

They Annually Cause Us a Loss of Millions of Dollars. We Can 
Rid Our Farms of These Pests if We Work Together. 

HOW WEEDS TAX THE FARMER 

1. They reduce crop yields by crowding and shading the plants, 

by robbing the crop of plant food and moisture. 

2. They increase the cost of harvesting by causing extra wear 

and tear on machinery and heavier work for horses. 

3. They lower the value of farm products by injuring the qual- 

ity of grain, by causing waste of hay, by getting into and 
injuring wool. 

4. They reduce profits in farming by reducing crop yields, by 

increasing cost of harvesting, by lowering quality of farm 
products and the value of land, and by increasing labor. 

HOW WEEDS ARE SPREAD 

1. By the scattering of the seed and by running roots. 

2. By sowing impure seed and by the use of weedy hay. 

3. By weed-seed-infested thrashing machines and other tools, 

binders, wagons, etc. 

4. By feeding weedy grain without grinding. 

5. By using unrotted manure. Manure containing weed seeds 

should be thoroughly rotted before being applied. 

6. By the infested highways where weeds are allowed to seed. 

HOW TO GET RID OF PERENNIAL WEEDS. 

1. Pull, dig, or cut all scattered plants while in bloom. Burn 

them if seed has formed. Where weeds are few, cut off 
two or three inches below the surface of the ground, make 
funnel-shaped hole about the root and fill with strong 
brine or salt. 

2. Smother with a rapid growing crop. Plow the weed in- 

fested field early in the fall, cultivating deeply and fre- 
quently until ground freezes. Plow again in spring. Cul- 
tivate frequently so as not to allow any growth above 



428 AGRICULTURE AND 

ground. Then sow buckwheat or millet (rate, a bushel to 
the acre) the first of July. 

3. Smother with paper. With small weed areas cover patch 

with overlapping strips of building paper, weighting it 
down and leaving it on during growing season. 

4. Plant cultivated crops. Treat field the same as for smother 

crop. Harrow frequently with spring tooth harrow until 
corn or potato planting time. Plant potatoes or corn 
in check rows. Cultivate crop both ways, hoeing out weeds 
not killed by cultivation. Success can only be secured by 
most persistent work. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 429 



CHAPTER XXVI 
BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT DESTROYERS 

ONE of the farmer's greatest problems is the protection 
of his crops against insect enemies and weeds. In this 
warfare he is greatly assisted by birds and other creatures 
that prey upon these pests for food. It is well that all who 
are interested in agriculture should come to know the birds 
that are most useful, that they may be protected and en- 
couraged in every way possible. 

Birds as "Policemen of the Air" 

It has been carefully estimated by expert entomologists 
that insects yearly cause a loss of more than $700,000,000 
to the farmers of the United States. Were it not for the 
work of our birds the amount of this loss would be incal- 
culably greater. Indeed, some authorities claim that with- 
out the help of these feathered friends the insect enemies 
of farm crops would ultimately triumph and successful 
agriculture would come to an end. 

Birds prey upon insects. — Not only do most birds in 
general find a considerable proportion of their diet among 
the harmful insects which so constantly levy tribute on the 
farmers' crops, but because of their powers of flight they 
can easily gather at points where any unusual outbreak of 



430 



AGRICULTURE AND 




A favorite food of tlie birds. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 431 

insects threaten completely to destroy the crops. For ex- 
ample, it has been noted that an unusual abundance of 
grasshoppers is sure to attract a large flock of birds from 
widely scattered areas and that these visitors leave the 
region only when they have exhausted the grasshopper 
supply. It has been similarly observed that any large 
increase in the number of small rodents, such as field mice, 
gophers and the like, quickly draws a large number of 
hawks and owls, which, while satisfying their own enor- 
mous appetites, produce a diminution in the number of the 
foe, if indeed they do not succeed in their entire extermina- 
tion. 

Birds require an unusual amount of food for their size 
and weight. While they are usually short lived they live at 
a rapid rate, breathing more rapidly and maintaining a 
higher temperature and a faster circulation than other 
vertebrates. This characteristic renders it necessary for 
birds to devote the greater part of their time to the hunting 
of insects, weeds, berries and whatever else may enter into 
their supply of food. Parent birds are also stimulated to 
additional activity and the industrious gathering of food 
during the time when their young are to be fed. For the 
young of birds which are not strictly insectivorous require 
large quantities of a food during the first few weeks of their 
lives. It is fortunate for the farmer that this carnivorous 
demand comes during the summer months and at the time 
when insects are most threatening to crops and gardens. 

Number of insects destroyed by birds. — So industrious 
are birds in the collection of their food supply that they are 



432 AGRICULTURE AND 

not content to fill their stomachs with insects or seeds of 
weeds and plants, but after the stomach is stuffed so full 
that it will hold no more, they continue to eat everything 
they find until the crop or gullet is also crammed full. It is 
often found that when the digestive tract is opened and the 
contents of the stomach and gullet placed in a pile, the pile 
is two or three times as large as was the stomach when filled. 
The remarkable capacity of birds for eating a large supply 
of food is shown by the following facts learned by stomach 
examinations of many birds made by assistants of the 
United States Biological Survey : 

"A tree swallow's stomach was found to contain 40 
entire chinch bugs and fragments of many others, besides 
10 other species of insects. A bank swallow in Texas 
devoured 68 cotton-boll weevils, one of the worst insect 
pests that ever invaded the southern half of the United 
States; and 35 cliff swallows had taken an average of 18 
boll weevils each. Two stomachs of pine siskins from Hay- 
wards, California, contained 1,900 black olive scales and 
300 plant lice. A killdeer's stomach taken in November 
in Texas contained over 300 mosquito larvae. A flicker's 
stomach held 28 white grubs. A night-hawk's stomach col- 
lected in Kentucky contained 34 IMay beetles, the adult 
form of white grubs. Another night-hawk from New York 
had eaten 24 clover-leaf weevils and 375 ants. Still an- 
other night-hawk had eaten 340 grasshoppers, 52 bugs, 3 
beetles, 2 wasps, and a spider. A boattailed grackle from 
Texas had eaten at one meal about 100 cotton boll worms, 
besides a few other insects, A ring-necked pheasant's crop 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



433 




The meadow lark. 



434 AGRICULTURE AND 

from Washington contained 8,000 seeds of chickweed and 
a dandelion head. More than 72,000 seeds have been found 
in a single duck stomach taken in Louisiana in February." 

Birds Useful to the Farmer 

It may in general be said that most of our birds found 
in the United States are useful and that but few of them 
are harmful. There are, however, but few that are always 
useful and never do any harm. For example, various insec- 
tivorous birds which destroy vast numbers of harmful 
insects, may also kill some insects or parasites which are 
themselves harmless and which prey upon harmful kinds. 
Such birds may also eat small quantities of fruit or grain, 
but taking the year round, nearly all of the common birds 
do vastly more good than harm and should in every way 
be encouraged around the farm and home. 

Crov^s, hawks and cwls.-^Even the crow, which par- 
ticularly during the spring season adds greatly to the farm- 
er's trials by pulling up the newly planted corn, far more 
than earns his way on the farm by eating many insects, 
especially white grubs and cutworms. He also destroys 
many meadow mice and other such small rodents. Along 
with the crow, the hawks and owls, which usually receive 
a bad name and are freely hunted and killed wherever 
found, are to be classed among the useful types that should 
be protected because of their destroying vast numbers of 
insects and harmful rodents. While these birds are gen- 
erally classed as thieves and robbers, a great majority of 
them spend most of their long life in pursuit of enemies of 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 435 

the farmer. As many as one hundred grasshoppers have 
been found in the stomach of a hawk, and this represented 
but a single meal. In the nest of a pair of barnfowls were 
found more than three thousand skulls, the greater part 
consisting of field mice, house mice and common rats. In 
another case nearly one-half bushel of the remains of 
pocket gophers was found adjoining the nest of a pair of 
this species. Wherever birds of prey of such sort are killed 
ofif there is immediately noticeable an increase in the number 
of noxious rodents. Only a few species of hawks are in- 
jurious, their depredations consisting chiefly in attacks on 
birds and chickens. The Cooper's hawk, the sharp-shinned 
hawk and the Goshawk are three species which should be 
known by every farmer and killed on sight. 

Several years ago the state of Pennsylvania offered a 
bounty on hawks and owls. The result was the killing of 
more than one hundred thousand of these birds. It was 
estimated by Doctor C. H. Merriam of the United States 
Biological Survey that the state of Pennsylvania sustained a 
loss of nearly four million dollars in eighteen months 
through the killing of these birds. It is needless to say 
that the law was quickly repealed when the mistake in 
policy was discovered. 

Other helpful birds. — The rapid-flying swallows, 
swifts and night hawks are especially adapted to the cap- 
turing of all flying insects, and the darting tireless flight of 
the swallow and its hunting mates results in a great reduc- 
tion in the number of mosquitoes, flies and other annoying 
pests. Other birds are similarly adapted for their own 



436 AGRICULTURE AND 

peculiar work in reducing the farmer's insect enemies. For 
example, the woodpecker is provided with a remarkable set 
of claws by which to hold himself firmly while at work. He 
has a drill-like bill driven by powerful muscles with which 
to dig out insects ; and he is even provided with an exten- 
sible tongue by means of which he can still further explore 
the hidden retreats of larvse or insects which hide away 
from their foes. 

Such birds as the creepers, tit-mice, warblers, fly-catch- 
ers, quails, doves and other families have each their own 
special adaptation to the work required for their food sup- 
ply. And however these birds may differ in other quali- 
ties, they are all alike in the fact that they possess a bound- 
less appetite for insects and weed seeds. 

Birds as weed seed eaters. — The great value of birds 
as weed seed eaters is shown by an estimate made by ex- 
perts in the United States Department of Agriculture: 
Their conclusion after careful computation is that the tree 
sparrow requires one-fourth ounce of weed seed per day as 
an average ration. On this basis the tree sparrows in a 
state like Iowa, annually eat approximately eight hundred 
and seventy-five tons of weed seeds. Only the farmer knows 
the harm which seeds do to his growing crops and can ap- 
preciate the great saving accomplished by the destruction 
of this vast quantity of weed seeds. If the comparison is 
extended to the entire United States, the estimate is that the 
tree sparrow saves to the farmers through its weed-eating 
habits, something like ninety millions of dollars each year. 

Value of birds proved by scientific study. — As a still 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 437 

further example of what birds mean to the farmer, the 
following facts gathered from a report of the United States 
Biological Survey are of interest : The bluebird's diet con- 
sists of sixty-eight per cent, of insects to thirty-two per cent, 
of vegetable matter, the largest supply of insects being 
grasshoppers first, beetles second and caterpillars third. 
Almost none of the vegetable part comes from cultivated 
varieties. Robins live on almost every kind of insect avail- 
able, being especially fond of earth worms. While half of 
the robin's food is fruit, this bird prefers wild varieties 
chiefly and does but little harm in orchards and gardens. 
Grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, bugs and spiders are the 
principal food of the house wren, though cutworms, 
weevils, ticks and plant lice are also acceptable. 

The barn swallow gets more than one-half of its food 
supply from flics. Beetles stand next in order, while ants, 
wasps and bees follow. The purple martin finds more than 
three-fourths of its ration in such insects as wasps, various 
bugs, beetles, flies and moths. The rose-breasted grosbeak 
is so fond of potato beetles that it has been called the "potato 
bug bird." 

The meadow lark lives chiefly on beetles, caterpillars, 
grasshoppers and weed seed. The quail or bob-white eats 
weed seeds, potato beetles, squash beetles, boll weevils, 
chinch bugs, grasshoppers and cutworms. Mourning 
doves live principally on weed seed with a small proportion 
of waste grain. Cuckoos select for their diet caterpillars, 
grasshoppers, beetles, moths and other harmful insects. 

It will not be necessary to extend this list which might 



438 



AGRICULTURE AND 



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Tbe hairy aud downy woodpeckers. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 439 

be made to include scores of other birds tliat join with the 
farmer in his effort to rid the crops of insects and weed 
enemies. Among the many species that should be encour- 
aged and protected are: meadow-lark, house wren, song 
sparrow, oriole, scissor-tail fly catcher, mocking-bird, blue 
jay, red-winged blackbird, cardinal, red-headed wood- 
pecker, killdeer, screech owl, robin, bluebird, snow bird, 
warbler, kinglet. In general, the birds are the farmer's 
friends and deserve his attention, protection and good will. 

Harmful birds — A few species of birds do much more 
harm than good and therefore do not merit protection. The 
English sparrozv has been declared a pest and should be 
exterminated. Wliile in some regions it eats a certain 
proportion of weed seed and harmful insects, on the whole 
its diet consists of orchard fruits, young garden vegetables 
and field grains, especially wheat. It also eats the eggs and 
attacks the young of a score of useful birds, thus reducing 
their number. Campaigns of extermination have been 
waged against the English sparrow in various parts of the 
country. 

The house finch and the sapsucker also do sufficient 
damage that they have no claim to the farmer's good will 
nor protection. 

Other Enemies of Harmful Insects and Animals 

Besides birds, a number of other creatures, most of 
them so lowly as all but to escape observation, are also 
good friends of the fanner. 

The toad. — The common ugly toad, which we often 



440 AGRICULTURE AND 

either avoid or kick out of our path, deserves better treat- 
ment. Its food consists of flies, caterpillars, cutworms, 
June-bugs and other harmful insects. 

The horned lizard fancies almost the same bill of fare 
and joins with the toad to protect our gardens from pests. 

Snakes. — The small snakes common to most regions 
are entirely hannless, and live on our enemies, such as mice, 
various beetles and weevils. It is therefore a mistake to 
kill them. 

Protecting Our Friends 

Farmers should encourage their boys and girls to make 
a study of the life and habits of the humble friends who do 
their best to rid our fields and gardens of their enemies, and 
should always encourage and protect them. 

Attracting the birds. — Bird houses consisting of small 
boxes roofed over, cans open at one end, or other suitable 
receptacles placed in trees or on posts in secluded places 
will do much to attract certain birds. The building of 
bird houses and feeding and watering devices should be 
encouraged in every neighborhood. This can be done by 
contests, through fairs, club festivals, and promoted by the 
schools in cooperation with their patrons. When deep snow 
covers the ground in winter, thus hiding the seeds and 
other food, it will pay well to scatter a little grain each day 
where the non-migrating birds will find it. 

How to treat a friend. — Bird hunting should not be 
with a gun, but with a camera, field-glass or alert eyes for 
the purpose of becoming acquainted with our feathered 



TTTE FARMING BUSINESS 



441 



friends. Birds' nests should never be disturbed, the eggs 
handled or the young worried during nesting time. The 
fashion which decorates hats with the plumage of birds, 
thus requiring their destruction, should be severely con- 
demned. We should even come to look upon toads, lizards, 
snakes and frogs as our friends and treat them with in- 
tellisrent consideration. 




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Feeding places for birds. 

Fig. 1 — Bird feed slielter for post. Fig. 2 — Bird feed plat- 
form for side of building. Fig. 3 — Bird shelter and feeding 
platform for lawn. Fig. 4 — Bird watering platform for top 
of post. Fis. ,5 — Combination, shelter, feed and watering 
arrangement 



442 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XXVII 
NATURE OF SOIL 

IN our discussion of plants and crops we have constantly 
referred to the soil. What is soilf Whence does 
it come? What relation does it bear to plant life, and hence 
to our own lives? Take a handful of "dirt" and crumble 
it between your fingers ; of what does it consist, what is 
its nature ? 

Origin of the Soil 

^Soil did not always exist as it is to-day. When the earth 
was young and the crust was forming there was no soil 
types as they are found now. There was only rock. And 
it is out of the weathering of this surface rock that the soil 
has come; and the process is still going on whenever rock 
is exposed. Soil is but particles of rock, to which has 
been added organic matter coming from the plants and 
animals that have lived on it or in it. 

The v^reathering of rock. — Rock is made into soil by 
two different processes, disintegration and decomposition. 
By disintegration is meant the breaking up of rock into 
small particles without changing their nature. By decom- 
position is meant such breaking up by chemical action that 
the nature of the particles is changed. 

The chief agencies causing the disintegration of rocks 
are sudden changes of temperature and the action of frost. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



443 



When masses of rock are heated by the sun they expand; 
sudden cooling at night or from change of weather causes 
so rapid a contraction that they are rent asunder. Water 
freezing in crevices also constantly breaks masses of rock 
into smaller pieces. 

Rocks undergo decomposition largely through changes 
due to the action of chemicals carried in water. The min- 




A plowing contest offers sport as interesting to farm boys as 
baseball. 



eral substances in the rocks are dissolved, and new prod- 
ucts formed. 

Surface and subsoil. — The terms soil and subsoil are 
used to distinguish the top portion from the soil that 
lies underneath. The line between the dark humus-colored 
part and the lighter soil below is sometimes spoken of as the 
division between soil and subsoil. Another distinction made 
is to call all that lies below the depth of tillage subsoil. No 



444 AGRICULTURE AND 

such dividing line can be sharply drawn, however, as much 
organic matter is found below the humus line, and the depth 
of tillage does not mark a natural division in layers of the 
soil. Surface soil differs from subsoil chiefly in the organic 
matter it contains. The depth of the surface, or cultivated 
soil can be increased by deep plowing, which brings up new 
layers to receive a supply of organic matter and mix with 
the upper soil. 

Classes of Soils 

Classes of soils based on origin. — It is evident that 
soils will differ in accordance with the nature or material 
of the rocks from which they come. They also vary on the 
basis of the mode of distribution or laying down of the lay- 
ers ; for example, some are formed from the rocks directly 
underneath, and others are transported long distances by 
water or wind. Still others are built up with a relatively 
small proportion of rock particles and a large proportion of 
organic matter called humus. On the basis of their origin 
the most important classes of soils are, (1) residual, (2) 
glacial, (3) loessial, (4) alluvial, and (5) humus. 

(1) Residual soils, or those formed from the underly- 
ing rocks will of necessity partake of the nature of the 
mother-strata. In the formation of soil from granite rocks 
the quartz, refusing to decompose, remains as grains of 
sand. The feldspars, on partially decomposing, yield clay. 
Limestone when weathered produces a fine textural clay. 

(2) Geologists tell us that large areas of North Amer- 
ica and Europe were at one time in the grip of glaciers — 
gigantic fields of ice flowing slowly southward foot by foot, 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 445 

like a great river only much slower. These enormous blocks 
of ice would, of course, gouge and scrape and wear the 
rocks over which they moved. They would push along 
great masses of soil, and gather other masses of soil and 
rocks from over-hanging cliffs against which they passed. 
In these ways the great ice rivers would transport and dis- 
tribute soils over other regions than those where they were 
formed. They would carry granite boulders and leave them 
strewn over territory miles away from the home of the 
rocks. They would wear down the sharp angular hills and 
leave great masses of earth dumped where the ice field 
melted, thus giving us the more undulating hills and valleys 
of the great central region of the United States. Thus 
were the glacial soils formed. 

(3) The wind is always at work carrying particles of 
soil from one place to another. Though these grains are 
small, the aggregate thus transported is gigantic, and large 
areas of the world have soils of this loesslal formation. 
Such soils are found extensively in Iowa, Illinois, south- 
western Wisconsin, eastern Kansas and Nebraska, Missouri, 
and southward along the IMississippi River. Since the pre- 
vailing winds in these regions are from the west, the general 
movement of the loessial soils over this territory is eastward. 
Since the formation of loessial soil continues, while glaciers 
are no longer at work except in extreme latitudes, it is evi- 
dent that loess will overlie glacial deposits wherever it is 
being formed. Loessial soils, being carried from dry regions 
where the lime and other basic elements have not been 
washed out, are usually very fertile. 



446 AGRICULTURE AND 

(4) Wherever water is found it holds certain soil ele- 
ments in suspension or in solution. In running water, soil 
particles are constantly being carried downward toward 
lower levels. Where streams or sheets of water overflow, 
layers of sediment are deposited, thus producing alluvial 
soils. The drying up of lakes or other bodies of standing 
water also leaves an alluvial deposit in the former bed. All 
great river systems have, by their overflow, built up alluvial 
soils along their course. Since the coarser soil particles are 
heavier than the finer particles held in suspension in flowing 
water, the coarser particles will settle first, while the finer 
particles will be carried farther down-stream. This fact ex- 
plains why alluvial soils along the upper courses of rivers 
are coarser than those along the lower courses. Streams 
formed by the melting glaciers carried immense deposits, 
sometimes filling valleys to a depth of fifty to two hun- 
dred feet with sand and gravel. Many such deposits are 
to be found throughout the northern part of the United 
States and in Canada. Large areas of clay and heavy silt 
soil in northwestern Minnesota and North Dakota were 
formed by the drying up of a gigantic glacial lake in that 
region. 

(5) Humus soils are found wherever organic matter, 
either animal or vegetable, has a chance partially to decay 
underneath the surface. Under these conditions it changes 
into a blackish substance, giving the soil the well-known 
black surface observed in its top layers. Humus is chiefly 
derived from the roots of plants and the vegetable matter 
that is turned under in tilling cultivated land. Because of 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 447 

the plentiful root system of most grasses, the prairie regions 
usually show the black humus soil to considerable depth. 
The maintenance of a generous supply of humus In soils is 
of prime importance in agriculture, as will be shown later. 

Classes of soils as influenced by climate. — Strange as 
it may seem at first thought, climatic influences play a 
greater part in determining the nature of soils than do the 
mother rocks from which they came. 

The prairie soils so common in the Mississippi Valley 
and other large regions of the world owe their chief char- 
acteristics to climatic conditions resulting in luxuriant crops 
of grass and to the conditions as to heat and drainage favor- 
ing the formation of humus. Tropical climates, because of 
their excessive heat and moisture hasten the decomposition 
of organic matter, hence humus does not readily form. The 
excessive rainfall also washes soluble salts from the soil and 
so deprives it of elements needed for fertility. 

On the other hand, arid climates lack sufficient rainfall 
to carry away certain salts formed by the weathering of the 
soil. The accumulation of these salts results in what are 
called alkali soils. Wherever the annual rainfall is less than 
about fifteen inches in regions of moderate temperatures or 
less than twenty inches in regions of high temperature, 
alkali is likely to occur. Large regions of the semi-arid 
West have alkali soils. 

Organic Matter in Soil 

Examine carefully a lump of common field soil. Pul- 
verize it and spread it out on a paper. In addition to the 



448 AGRICULTURE AND 

grains of sand, silt and clay which represent the rock por- 
tions, note all the different organic particles, such as pieces 
of roots, fibers of plants, and parts of insects. Place it 
under a magnifier, and see whether you can make still fur- 
ther discoveries. 

Need o£ organic matter. — Although the rock particles 
make up far the greater part of the mass of the soil, or- 
ganic matter is of the highest importance to plants. Indeed, 
it is practically impossible to raise crops on soil lacking in 
organic constituents. All the upper layers of ordinary soil 
contain from two to fiive per cent, of organic material, com- 
ing chiefly from the roots and stems of plants. 

Humus. — When vegetation decays on top of the 
ground it is really burned up as effectually as if put into a 
stove, only more slowly. The gases pass off into the air 
and only a little ash remains on the soil. From this proc- 
ess the soil receives comparatively little benefit. If, how- 
ever, decay takes place under the surface, where but little 
oxygen is present, a substance is produced which is called 
humus. All soil on which plants are grown is therefore 
constantly producing humus from the roots, and from the 
stubble and stems if these are turned under. Dig up a piece 
of timothy sod and note the mass of roots — about two tons 
of roots to the acre on a good field. Blue-grass yields some 
six tons of roots to the acre. Soils that are cropped contin- 
uously with the common cereals and the crops removed with- 
out returning manure to the field become deficient in humus, 
and the yield is decreased. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 449 

Effects of humus on the soil. — The most easily noted 
effect of humus is in the darkening of the soil. The so- 
called "black" soils get their color from the abundance of 
humus they contain. The coloring is accomplished by the 
partially decayed and partially preserved black organic mat- 
ter coating over the small particles of the soil. The depth 
to which humus extends, ranging from a few inches to sev- 
eral feet, can be noted at any wayside ditch by the line be- 
tween the dark soil on top and the lighter soil beneath. 

Humus serves several very important uses in the soil: 

(1) it acts as a storehouse for different kinds of plant food; 

(2) it increases the capacity of the soil to hold water; (3) 
it aids in both creating and conserving heat in the soil ; (4) 
it favors the growth of bacteria helpful to plants ; (5) it im- 
proves the physical condition of the soil, making it more 
porous and more easily cultivated. 

Living organisms. — Reference has already been made 
to the influence of certain bacteria in the fixing of nitrogen 
in the soil. The soil harbors many different kinds of bac- 
teria and other organisms. It is fairly teeming with life, 
some of which is hostile to plant growth, but more of which 
is necessary to successful plant development. 

Other organic matter. — Besides living organic matter 
and that which has undergone chemical changes converting 
it into humus, most soils contain a certain amount of veg- 
etable matter in the form of roots and stems of plants 
which have not yet begun the process of decomposition. 
These affect the soil chiefly in making it more accessible 
to air and light, and more permeable to water. 



450 AGRICULTURE AND 

Texture of Soils 

Secure samples of three different field soils, (1) a clay 
soil, (2) a silt soil, and (3) a sandy soil. Place each of 
these one inch deep in a bottle. Now fill all three bottles 
with water and shake for several minutes. Put the bottles 
in a quiet place and let the contents settle. Note which 
soil settles to the bottom most quickly. The time it requires 
to settle depends on the coarseness or fineness of the tex- 
ture. From the point of view of texture, soils are classified 
as follows : clay, silt, sand, or gravel. 

Meaning of texture. — By texture of soil is meant 
the degree of fineness or coarseness of the particles of which 
it is composed. The finest soil particles, which will remain 
in suspension clouding water for hours, are called clay. The 
next finest, which will settle in about one hour, are silt. The 
coarser particles, which will settle almost at once, are called 
sand or gravel. 

Most crop soils have all of the first three of these grades 
or sizes of particles in their make-up. The texture of the 
soil depends on the proportion of each in the mixture. Soils 
are named in accordance with the particular one of these 
elements that outweighs all others. 

If the very fine particles are in excess, we speak of a 
clay soil ; if the texture is intermediate, of a loam soil ; and 
if coarse, of a sandy or gravelly soil. We also use the terms 
clay loam, silt loam and sandy loam, etc., to describe the 
texture. 

Composition of three soil types. — A mechanical an- 
alysis of three types of soil texture made by the United 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



451 



States Department of Agriculture shows the following pro- 
portions of soil particles in each: 



Type of soil 


Fine 
gravel 


C'se 
sand 


Med. 
sand 


Fine 
sand 


Very 

fine 

sand 


Silt 


Clay 


Norfolk sand (truck soil) 
Wabash clay (riv. bot.)- 
Silt loam (corn soil) 


._.3% 

.__0 

.__0 


15% 
1% 
1% 


22% 
1% 

1% 


38% 
3% 

2% 


10% 

7% 
8% 


8% 

49% 


4% 
39% 
15% 



From this table it is seen that Norfolk sand, which is 
an excellent soil for truck gardening on the Atlantic, is 
eighty-eight per cent, sand and gravel, and only twelve per 
cent, silt and clay combined. Middle western silt loam, 
such as grows most of our field corn, is three-fourths silt, 
and fifteen per cent, clay and twelve per cent. sand. River- 
bottom clay soils are slightly more than one-third clay, and 
almost one-half silt. 

Structure of Soils 

Take a piece of clay in your hand. Try to crumble it 
into small particles. Do the same with a piece of loam; 
with a lump of sandy soil. Note that some soils plow up 
in great clods, while others break up into small pieces, pro- 
ducing what is called a mellow condition. You have no- 
ticed that in some places the ground cakes and cracks open 
when it becomes very dry, while in other places it remains 
soft and unbroken no matter how dry it becomes? These 
differences are matters of soil structure. 

Soil structure. — By soil structure is meant the mode 
in which particles adhere to one another, causing them to 



452 AGRICULTURE AND 

cling together in solid masses hard to break up, or forming 
but loosely joined lumps which are easily broken or pul- 
verized. 

Clay soils are of a heavy, dense, dinging structure, dif- 
ficult to break apart, hence hard to plow. Silt loams 
and sand loams, on the other hand, are friable; that is, 
they are easily broken up. They plow or pulverize easily 
because they are not so adhesive. All soils that are lacking 
in humus tend to become dense and resisting in structure. 

Causes affecting soil structure. — The chief adhesive 
force holding soil particles together in clusters, grains or 
lumps is the ivater aims that surround the particles. Each 
separate particle is covered by a thin film of water, whose 
effect is much the same as a film of rubber. Let a number 
of small soil particles, each surrounded by its water film, 
come into contact, and their individual films all merge into 
one, and by Its tension unites these particles in a single gran- 
ule, or cluster. These clusters are In a similar way joined 
into still larger clusters, and so on until, in fine clay soils, 
one continuous mass Is formed. As clay soils dry out the 
films break, shrinking occurs and the surface cracks open. 

The greater adhesive power of clay soils comes from 
the fineness of their particles. The larger the numxber of 
particles in a given mass of soil, the greater the aggregate 
surface of these particles, and hence the greater the amount 
of water films needed to bind the particles together. Sandy 
soils do not form Into granules, or lumps, because the aggre- 
gate surface of the particles Is not sufficient to supply the 
binding force of water films necessary to hold them together. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 453 

It has been carefully estimated that the particles of a 
cubic foot of soil of different textures have the following 
aggregate amount <of surface: 

Coarse sandy loam 40,000 square feet. 

Sandy loam 65,000 " " 

Silt loam 100,000 " 

Clay soil 150,000 " 

From these comparisons it is clear that the water films 
are several times greater in area in clay soils than in sandy 
soils, hence the tendency to adhesiveness in clay soils is 
correspondingly increased. 

Soil structure and tilth. — All have noticed that some 
seed beds are g^ranular or full of lumps, with very 
little fine earth for packing about the seeds. Others are 
finely pulverized, and favorable for plant growth. The con- 
dition presented by the soil with reference to plant growth 
is called its tilth. 

Tilth depends chiefly on soil structure. Dense heavy 
soils that have a tendency to form into lumps when plowed, 
or that easily bake after rain, make it difficult to maintain a 
good tilth. On the other hand, a good tilth is equally hard 
to maintain on soils that easily burn out in a drought, or 
that for any reason are not good reservoirs of water. 

Erosion 

Nature of erosion. — By erosion is meant the wearing 
or carrying away of soil by the action of running water and 
the wind. Erosion by running water takes place in some 
degree on all slopes; the hills are gradually but constantly 



454 



AGRICULTURE AND 



being carried into the valleys. But it is on the steep hillsides 
where the velocity of the water is greatest that most damage 
is done. The reason for this is easily seen when it is re- 
membered that the transporting power of water increases 
as the sixth power of its velocity. This means that doubling 
its velocity increases the carrying power sixty-four times; 




A billside, showing tbe effects of water erosiou. 



trebling its velocity increases the carrying power seven hun- 
dred and twenty-nine times, and so on. 

The texture of the soil has much to do with erosion. 
All soils that permit ready absorption of water, as from 
rains or melting snow, leave less to run over the surface, 
and so are less subject to erosion than dense clay soils. 

Effects of water erosion. — Erosion by running water 
not only produces gullies and ditches that interfere with 
cultivation, but greatly reduces the fertility of hilltops and 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 455 

slopes by general surface washing. For the best parts 
of the soil are carried away by erosion. Organic mat- 
ter is relatively light, and so floats off; the finer clay and 
silt particles as we have seen, remain long in sus- 
pension in water and are carried away, while the coarser 
portions are left behind. And it is just this organic mat- 
ter and the finer soil particles that contain the best part 
of the plant food. No wonder then that the hilltops have 
a thin poor soil, and that the valleys are noted for their 
fertility. 

Prevention of erosion. — While soil erosion can not be 
wholly prevented, it can be greatly checked. And nature 
suggests one effective remedy in covering all soil with vege- 
tation. It is bare soil that washes and blows away. Even 
a steep hillside when covered with grass is reasonably free 
from erosion. For the stems tend to delay the downward 
rush of water, thus causing it to soak into the ground, and 
the roots bind the soil together. This indicates that steep 
slopes should be used for pasturage, meadows and wood 
lots rather than for cropping. The addition of organic mat- 
ter in the form of manure also lessens the danger from 
washing, since it increases the capacity of the soil to absorb 
water, and also tends to bind the soil together. 

Hillsides when tilled should be plowed along the slope 
rather than up and down, and in many sections it is neces- 
sary to terrace the hillsides. This delays the forming of 
rivulets and favors absorption of water. Every furrow 
leading down the hill is the beginning of a gully in times of 
heavy rains. Even the marks left by the wheels of a corn 



456 AGRICULTURE AND 

planter, unless leveled over by harrowing, will serve as 
water channels and result in waste of soil and washing out 
of the seed or plants. 

Gullies once started should be leveled immediately by 
use of the plow or other form of cultivation. Pack 
straw, hay, or manure at the head of the channel, or at 
intervals along its course, as this will do much to stop 
the erosion, especially if used in time. Sheet, or sur- 
face, washing is, however, a source of greater damage 
than the formation of gullies. For sheet erosion, though 
gradual, is constant on the slopes of all tilled fields. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 457 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 

PLANTS, lower animals and men all depend either 
directly or indirectly on the soil and air for their ex- 
istence. The elements required to build up either plant or 
animal tissues must be drawn from these two sources. But 
animals can not draw food directly from the soil and air, — 
only plants have the power to appropriate food substances 
in these crude forms and make them over into living, or- 
ganic matter. Plants may therefore be looked upon as min- 
ute factories, each at work building living tissues out of 
elementary substances not available to animals. All human 
food comes either from the plants themselves, or from ani- 
mals that feed upon plants. 

The Soil as the Home of the Plant 

The soil is the home of the plant, at least of all plants 
cultivated in agriculture. There the plant must find all con- 
ditions necessary to its growth, health and prosperity. This 
means that just as a man requires more from his home than 
food for the body, so the plant must find in its soil home 
more than the food demanded for its development. 

Must be adapted to roots of plant. — The plant must 



458 AGRICULTURE AND 

find in the soil congenial conditions for the distribution of 
its roots. For these are the plant's mouths, through which 
it drinks up the supply of food and moisture. The soil must 
be easily permeable by the delicate root-tips, which are the 
true growing points of the underground part of the plant, 
and through less than one-eighth of an inch of which at the 
very extremity of each growing rootlet the plant gets its 
nourishment. 

The tilth and general physical condition of the soil must 
be such that the roots of the plant can "breathe." For 
plants, like animals, require oxygen in their growth. Soils 
that are baked or water-logged are to the plant what a 
tightly sealed room would be to a person — both suffer from 
want of air, and growth is checked and often the life for- 
feited. 

Must prove congenial to plant nature. — The soil must 
be free from the various toxins, or poisons, detrimental to 
the plant. Yet we must remember that, as in the case of 
animals, what may be harmful to one may benefit another. 
For example, while acid in soils is fatal to the best growth 
of clover, alfalfa and other legumes, cranberries and certain 
other crops do best on an acid soil. Poisons from many of 
the weeds are a distinct damage to cultivated crops. Alkali 
in certain western regions prevents the successful raising of 
many of the farm plants. 

In addition to these conditions belonging particularly to 
the soil itself, all plants must have adequate heat and mois- 
ture. While these are not supplied directly by the soil, its 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 459 

condition, as previously shown, has much to do with the 
maintenance of heat and the conservation of moisture. 

The plant which finds its soil home congenial in all such 
matters — in its physical condition, in its air supply, in its 
heat and moisture and freedom from hostile toxins, is in 
condition to appropriate and profit by the plant food con- 
tained in the soil. Lacking any of these necessary condi- 
tions the available plant food, that is the soil fertility, may 
go for naught and the crop fail. Fertility is therefore only 
one of the essential factors in plant production. 

Plant Food and Soil Fertility 

Fertility and the capacity of the soil for plant produc- 
tion are different terms. Fertility is a question of what the 
soil is capable of doing under most favorable conditions — 
the quantity of available plant foods ready for the growing 
crop. The producing power depends on the presence of 
fertility plus the conditions discussed in the preceding sec- 
tion. This is to say that different modes of cultivation or 
soil treatment in general may result in very different crop 
yields in soils of the same fertility. In order to reap the 
full advantage of fertile soils or to secure the benefits 
from the fertilizers applied good tillage must be prac- 
tised. 

Food required by plants. — Agricultural plants require, 
in all, ten principal chemical elements for their growth. 
These are: 



Supplied by the soil. 

■Quantity practically inexhaustible. 



460 AGRICULTURE AND 

Carbon ^ 

Hydrogen I Supplied by air and water. 

Oxygen [ 

Calcium 

Magnesium 

Iron 

Sulphur 

Nitrogen ^ Supplied by the soil. 

Phosphorus Quantity limited. 

Potassium J 

The first of these ten plant elements — carbon — is sup- 
plied in the form of carbon dioxide by the atmosphere, and 
hence forms no part of the soil's fertility. Hydrogen and 
oxygen, which are the elements that compose water, are 
taken up by the plant directly from the water of the soil. 
The next four of the list, calcium, magnesium, iron and sul- 
phur, are found in practically all soils in quantities sufficient 
for ordinary plant growth. The fertility of the soil there- 
fore depends chiefly on the supply of the last three, nitro- 
gen, phosphorus and potassium. 

Rich or fertile soils are those that contain an abundance 
of these three elements. Every crop removes some amount 
of each of the seven elements supplied by the soil ; but since 
calcium, magnesium, iron and sulphur are practically 
inexhaustible, they do not have to be replaced in order to 
maintain the soil's fertility. Nitrogen, phosphorus and 
potassium, however, must constantly be returned to the soil 
if it is not to become exhausted and the crops reduced. As 
the strength of a chain is measured by its weakest link, so 
the fertility of the soil is for most crops measured by the 
amount of these elements available. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



461 



It must not be understood, however, that nitrogen, phos- 
phorus and potassium are in any way linked together so that 
when one is short all must be lacking, or that when one is 
present in sufficient quantity all must be in abundance. Each 
of these three elements is independent of the others. Lack 
of fertility and consequent failure of crops may be due, 




Field sliowiug tbe effect of legumes and proper treatment of 
the soil. On the left manure was used; on the right, lime- 
stone, rock-phosphate and manure. 



therefore, to a shortage of any one element, the other being 
present in abundant supply. 

Danger of loss of fertility. — One of our chief agricul- 
tural problems is to maintain the fertility of the soil. We 
must all live from its products, no matter what our occupa- 
tion. A large proportion of the tillable land of the United 



462 AGRICULTURE AND 

States is now occupied. Our people must be fed from the 
land; there is no other source of supply. 

This means that we should not only keep up the fertil- 
ity of the soil, but actually increase it as time goes on. It 
is estimated that our population is increasing five times as 
fast as our food supply. This fact explains in part, at least, 
the high cost of living. 

Much land has been rendered almost valueless by means 
of single cropping, and by rental of land on short-term 
leases to farmers who have robbed the soil of its nitrogen, 
phosphorus and potassium. Farms located within a hun- 
dred miles of the great eastern and southern markets have 
recently been bought for from ten dollars to twenty dollars 
an acre, when middle western land is selling for one hun- 
dred dollars to two hundred seventy-five dollars an acre. 
Much of this eastern and southern land was originally ias 
good as the western, and would be worth three hundred dol- 
lars an acre if it had been properly farmed to conserve its 
fertility. 

The importance of soil conservation is thus emphasized 
by Doctor C. G. Hopkins of the University of Illinois : 

"The greatest material problem of the United States, is not 
in the development of the waterways, not in the preservation 
of forests, and not in the conservation of cur coal and iron, 
important as these all are; but the problem that is vastly greater 
than all of these, is to bring about the adoption of systems that 
will maintain or increase the productive power of American 
soils. 

"Not only on the black cotton soils of India, where five acres 
of land are now required to produce one bale of cotton; not 
only on the black earth soils of Russia where eight bushels 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 463 

is the average yield of wheat after a year of fallow — but also 
on the black corn soils of America — the practice of the art of 
agriculture tends toward land ruin. 

"Whenever the hundreds of thousands of acres of level or 
gently undulating, depleted or abandoned farm lands of New 
York and old Virginia are redeemed and made equal to the 
newer lands of the Central West which are now in their prime, 
some of them paying good interest on $200 an acre, then, and 
not until then can there be any other material problem of the 
United States that compares with this in reference to the 
future welfare of America." 

Soil Nitrogen 

Nitrogen constitutes one of the most important food ele- 
ments supplied b}' plants, especially in all protein-producing 
foods. This nitrogen must be secured by the plant from the 
soil. The soil comes by its nitrogen from three sources : 
(1) a very small amount is added to the soil by the rain- 
fall; (2) from the organic matter of plants and animals 
which, when partially decaying underneath the surface, 
produces humus; and (3) from the air, through the action 
of nitrifying bacteria living on the roots of leguminous 
plants. Every successive crop removes some amount of ni- 
trogen from the soil. Nitrogen is also lost through leaching, 
through erosion, and through the process called denitrifica- 
tion. It is evident that this loss must in some way be made 
good if fertility is to be maintained. 

Amount of nitrogen available. — Careful investigations 
have shown that the amount of nitrogen in the top eight 
inches of an acre of Wisconsin soils varies from fifteen 
hundred pounds in light colored sands to five thousand 
pounds in loams, and ten thousand pounds in muck or peat 



464 AGRICULTURE AND 

soils. Upland prairie soils in Illinois showed in the first 
seven inches of an acre from twenty-eight hundred to thirty- 
three hundred pounds of nitrogen, and upland timber soils 
about fifteen hundred pounds. 

A thirty bushel crop of wheat removes from an acre 
about forty-eight pounds of nitrogen; a fifty bushel crop of 
oats, fifty pounds, and a sixty-five bushel crop of corn, 
eighty-five pounds. The amount of nitrogen lost by leach- 
ing depends largely on the form in which the nitrogen 
exists and the amount of rainfall. Most nitrogen com- 
pounds are not easily soluble in water, but nitrogen in the 
form of nitrates is easily soluble and so easily lost by leach- 
ing. The nitrates fonned under conditions of heavy ma- 
nuring of truck crops are subject to a considerable amount 
of loss. Nitrogen also leaches more readily from cultivated 
than from sod land. 

Loss of nitrogen. — Whenever soil is subject to ero- 
sion, nitrogen is, of course, being carried away with the 
humus or other forms of organic compounds in which it 
exists. Winter cover crops are coming to be quite gen- 
erally used in the South to prevent both erosion and leach- 
ing. 

By denitrification is meant the loss of nitrogen from 
the soil in gaseous form. This is caused by the action of 
certain bacteria. These bacteria thrive best in the absence 
of air; hence loss of nitrogen from this source is greatest in 
wet, poorly cultivated soils which lack aeration. Poorly 
rotted manure contains large numbers of denitrifying bac- 
teria. An excessive use of such manure may even reduce 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 465 

the amount of nitrogen already in the soil. This would sug- 
gest a moderate application of manure at frequent intervals 
rather than an excessive application at longer periods. 

Phosphorus in Soils 

The phosphorus of the soil originates in the rock from 
which the basis of all soils comes. It occurs in large quan- 
tities in the mineral opatile. The amount of phosphorus 
found even in virgin soils differs greatly, varying from 
about four hundred to three thousand pounds. 

Exhaustion of phosphorus. — A thirty bushel crop of 
wheat will remove from an acre of soil nine and two-tenths 
pounds of phosphorus; a fifty-bushel crop of oats, seven 
and eight -tenths pounds; a sixty-five bushel crop of corn, 
fourteen pounds. Analysis of the depleted soils of parts of 
India, Turkey, and various sections of Asia show hardly 
a trace of phosphorus remaining. A similar test of the 
soil from the exhausted farms of our own eastern states 
reveals nearly the same condition in many instances. And 
this is what will happen to the richest of our virgin soils 
unless steps are taken to maintain the supply of phos- 
phorus. 

Under ordinary farming conditions, phosphorus is con- 
stantly being lost from the soil. When the grain produced 
is sold, three-fourths of the phosphates taken from the soil 
are removed from the farm. Milk and cheese sold off the 
farm also carry away a considerable amount of phosphorus. 
Phosphoric acid up to some fifteen per cent, of the whole 
amount is lost from farm manures under prevailing meth- 



466 AGRICULTURE AND 

ods of handling them. From these facts it is plainly evi- 
dent that phosphorus must be returned to the soil in some 
form if its productivity is to continue. 

How to conserve phosphorus. — The available supply 
of phosphorus is to be maintained or increased, ( 1 ) through 
feeding the crops and returning the barnyard manures care- 
fully to the soil, (2) through the buying of feeds such as 
bran or other concentrated nutrients and using them for 
the maintenance of farm stock, and (3) through the use 
of commercial fertilizers. It is fortunate for farmers whose 
soil is depleted of phosphorus that commercial fertilizers 
can now be bought at reasonable prices to remedy the defect. 

Potassium in Soils 

Soils average a considerably larger proportion of potas- 
sium than of either nitrogen or of phosphorus in their com- 
position. The amount per acre in the top eight inches runs 
from twenty thousand up to forty thousand pounds for 
loam and clay soils, from five thousand to about twenty 
thousand pounds for sandy soils, and from one hundred 
to twenty-five hundred pounds for muck and peat soils. 
This generous supply would seem not easily exhaustible 
except in soils of the muck or peat type. 

Yet the situation is not so favorable as it would appear 
from these figures. For much of the potassium of the soil 
exists in minerals that are not soluble in water and hence 
the plant can not make use of them. The process by which 
this supply of potassium is finally made available to plants 
is a chemical decomposition which is so slow that plants 
may be starved for potassium in soil that contains an 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 467 

abundance. Such is likely to be the case on sandy soils, 
when the chemical change is even slower than on moist 
finer soils. The remedy is the application of a potassium 
fertilizer. 

Keeping up supply of potassium. — The problem of 
maintaining a potassium supply on the farm is somewhat 
simpler than in the case of phosphorus, for the reason 
that while phosphorus enters more largely into the grain 
than into the stems of plants, potassium is expended largely 
in the stalks and stems. Even if grain is sold from the 
farm, therefore, the supply of potassium can be kept 
up reasonably well by returning to the soil as much 
of the straw, stubble, corn stalks and hay as is possible. It 
will, nevertheless, often pay to apply some form of com- 
mercial potassium fertilizer to soils that are lacking in this 
element. 

Supply of food taken by crops. — The following table 
gives the amount of each of the three elements, nitrogen, 
phosphorus and potassium removed from an acre by some 
cf the common farm crops: 

Crop. Nitrogen Phosphorus rotassium 

Pounds Pounds Pounds 

Wheat — ■ 

Grain, 30 bu. 33 6.2 7.7 

Straw 15 3.0 16.2 

Oats- 
Grain, 50 bu. 35 5.2 8.3 

Straw 15 2.6 29.1 

Corn — 

Grain, 65 bu. 40 7.9 12.5 

Stalks 45 6.1 66.4 



9.4 


63.5 


1.2 


0.9 


10.5 


82.2 


10.9 


69.2 


17.9 


95.5 


3.5 


17.6 



468 AGRICULTURE AND 



Potatoes— 
224 bu. 47 

Potato vines 20 

Sugar Beets — 
(Roots only) 
15 tons 48 

Red Clover — • 
Hay, 2.42 tons 102 

Alfalfa- 
Hay, 4 tons 200 

Timothy hay — 

3000 lbs. 16.2 



Crop Rotation and Fertility 

The rotation of crops can not properly be said to in- 
crease the fertility of the soil. For every crop removes 
from the soil some quantity of each of the elements required 
for plant growth. Certain very definite advantages come 
from rotation, however, which at least save the rapid soil 
exhaustion resulting from growing one crop continuously. 
Rotation also brings increased yields. In this sense a proper 
rotation may have the same effect as the application of a 
fertilizer, though it can never serve as a substitute. 

What is meant by rotation of crops. — By rotation of 
crops is meant a regular order followed for a period of years, 
and alternating on different fields. If this order is hit-and- 
miss, or the result of whim or chance, it can not be called a 
rotation. Rotations may be planned on a two-year, three- 
year, four-year, or any other time cycle. 

What is accomplished by rotation. — Rotation of 
crops improves the physical condition of the soil. Grasses 
and legumes have a larger supply of roots than most cereals, 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 469 

and so increase the organic matter. Different crops send 
their roots to different depths, and so use new portions of 
the soil. The cuhivation of inter-tilled crops clears the soil 
of weeds, and opens it up to air and moisture. 

Rotation also aids in destroying insects and other ene- 
mies of plants, as we have already seen. The pests that 
attack one kind of crop die out when another crop is raised 
on the field. The growing of the nitrogen-gathering legumes 
on every part of the farm in succession is made possible 
by rotation, thus saving the necessity of buying commer- 
cial nitrogen fertilizers. 

The crops to use in a rotation. — It is evident that no 
universal standard rotation can be prescribed. Both the par- 
ticular crops and the order must be decided by local con- 
ditions and requirements. The rotation is usually based on 
some one principal crop, such as corn, cotton, potatoes or 
wheat, the other crops being arranged to favor these. Where 
cotton or tobacco is the main crop, the following five-year 
rotation is considered a good one : first year, cotton or to- 
bacco; second year, corn and crimson clover; third year, 
crimson clover; fourth year, small grains; fifth year, cow- 
peas or soy-beans. 

A good five-year rotation for the South to include truck- 
ing and fruit growing may be as follows: first year, cot- 
ton or wheat and cow-peas ; second year, early potatoes and 
beans ; third year, early potatoes and beans or other veget- 
ables ; and strawberries for the two succeeding years. 

The table for the five-year rotation, showing distribu- 
tion by fields, may be as follows : 



470 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Year 



Field A Field B Field C Field D Field E 



First 



Second 



Third 



Fourth 



Fifth 



Crimson 
Clover 

Small 
Grains 

Cow-peas 

or 

Soy-beans 

Cotton or 
Tobacco 

Corn and 

Crimson 

Clover 



Small Cowr-peas Cotton or Cow-peas 

Grains or Tobacco or 

Soy-beans Soy-beans 

Cow-peas Corn and 

or Cotton or Crimson Crimson 

Soy-beans Tobacco Clover Clover 



Tobacco 

Corn and 

Crimson 

Clover 

Crimson 
Clover 



Corn and 

Crimson 

Clover 



Cotton or >:^.'" '^"^ Crimson Corn and 



Clover 



Crimson 
Clover 



Small 
Grains 



Small 
Grains 



Crimson 
Clover 

Cotton or 
Tobacco 



Cow-peas c- 11 
^j. ^ Small 

c 1 Grains 

Soy-beans 



Note that the above system of rotation provides for 
both corn and cotton each year, but never in the same 
field for two or more successive years. It also provides for 
forage and cover crops and small grains for necessary feed 
for farm animals. 



Year 


Field A 


Field B 


Field C 


Field D 


Field E 


First 


Corn 


Corn 


Oat,s 


Clover 


Pasture 


Second 


Corn 


Oats 


Clover 


Pasture 


Corn 


Third 


Oats 


Clover 


Pasture 


Corn 


Corn 


Fourth 


Clover 


Pasture 


Corn 


Corn 


Oats 


Fifth 


Pasture 


Corn 


Corn 


Oats 


Clover 


First 


Corn 


Corn 


Oats 


Clover 


Pasture 



Principles of rotation. — In the southern states as a 
rule it will be found much more profitable to grow a crop of 
cotton or tobacco once every three, four or five years on the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 471 

same field than every year. There are four kinds of crops 
that should be considered in every rotation. First, a ready- 
money crop, and upon this crop the rotation should be 
based. In the South these crops are usually cotton or to- 
bacco, sometimes wheat. Corn is also fast becoming a 
good basic money crop for the South. Second, there should 
always be a fodder crop available for necessary feeding of 
farm animals. Third, there should be at least one legume 
in the rotation in order to furnish humus for plant growth. 
Fourth, in every rotation there should be a plan for the 
growing of a winter cover crop to prevent the erosion and 
leaching of the soils. The latter is especially important in 
the southern states. 

In working out a system of rotation no plan will be safe 
to follow for all states or all districts. It is therefore quite 
important that the farmer should consult the local experi- 
ment station and college of agriculture with reference to 
a suitable system of rotation. In general, the following 
principles of rotation should be carefully considered: 

Rotation Rules. — 1. Rotate the crop so as to give not 
less than one money market crop every year. When 
plenty of land is available, two or more money crops 
should be grown. 

2. Rotate crops so as to have as much green feed as 
possible for the entire year. 

3. Rotate the crop so as to make use for each suc- 
ceeding year of the remains or residue of former crops, 
such as manures and other fertilizers. 

4. Rotate the crops so as to secure as much nitrogen 



472 AGRICULTURE AND 

as possible from the air. Clover, alfalfa, cow-peas and 
other legumes will do this. 

5. Rotate the crops so as to defeat or check the de- 
velopment of insect pests and plant diseases. Lack of 
this has been the chief cause of the rapid advance of the 
Mexican boll weevil in cotton territory. 

6. Rotate the crops so as to make use of all tillable 
land every season. 

7. Rotate the crops so as to secure an even distribu- 
tion of labor for both man and beast during the entire year. 

8. In southern territory rotate crops so as to pro- 
vide for winter forage for live stock and cover crops to 
prevent leaching and erosion. 

Improvement of Sandy Soils 

The following rules for the improvement of sandy soils 
of northern states are given by the Experiment Station 
of the University of Wisconsin : 

1. BY ADDING LIME. 

What Kinds. — Ground limestone, quicklime, air slaked lime or 

marl. 
When. — In spring or fall on plowed land. 
How Much. — From one to two tons per acre depending upon 

acidity. 
How Applied. — With manure spreader or fertilizer spreader. 

2. BY GROWING LEGUMES. 

Why.— 1. To add nitrogen. 

2. To furnish humus. 

How. — 1. By use of lime. 

2. By use of plant food. 

3. By inoculation. 



THE FARAIINCx BUSINESS 473 

4. By compacting soil. 

The corrugated roller is very useful in bringing moisture 
to germinating seed. 
Which. — Red or mammoth clover, soy-beans and alfalfa. 

3. BY ADDING PLANT FOOD. 

In stable manure which contains all the elements needed by 
sandy soils or in commercial fertilizers containing phosphorus 
and potassium. Nitrogen may be supplied by raising clover or 
some other legume. 

4. BY ROTATING CROPS. 

You will maintain nitrogen by use of legumes. 
You will maintain humus by green manuring crops. 
You will prevent growth of weeds. 
You will prevent insects and diseases. 

5. CONSERVING MOISTURE. 

How. — By the use of the harrow or cultivator to keep ground 

covered with a fine dust mulch. 
When. — As soon after rain as possible to keep soil water from 

evaporating. The plants will need it. 



474 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XXIX 
SOIL MOISTURE 

WATER is as necessary to the growth of plants as fer- 
tile soil. All the food taken by plants from the soil 
must first be dissolved in water. The tiny root-tips suck 
in this food-laden water which circulates to every part cf 
the plant, producing its growti 

The amount of water required by a growing crop is enor- 
mous. For every pound of dry matter made by the plan/", 
from three hundred to eight hundred pounds of water must 
be drawn in by its roots and circulate through it. To pro- 
duce a ton of dry hay on an acre of ground demands that 
approximately five hundred tons of water be pumped by 
the grass stalks from the soil. When the soil lacks water, 
plants are cut ofif from both necessary food and. drink. 

Forms of Soil Water 

Gravitational water. — Soil that is thoroughly satur- 
ated contains a certain amount of free water that will 
drain ofif if there is some outlet. That is, the force of grav- 
ity pulls it down through the soil; hence its name, free, or 
gravitational water. 

To watch how this works, place some soil in a funnel 
closed with .a stopper. Pour water over the soil until it is 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 475 

completely soaked. Then remove the stopper and allow 
what will of the water to drain off. All the water that thus 
escapes is free, or gravitational water. 

Plants can not use gravitational water for their supply. 
This is to say that they can not grow in a soaked soil. "Wa- 
ter-logged" soil excludes air from the roots, and the plants 
soon suffer for want of oxygen. Standing water also keeps 
the roots of most plants too cold for good growth. Hence 
the necessity of conditions that will allow the soil to drain 
readily after rains, so that the free water may escape. 

Capillary water. — Soils will not drain entirely dry. 
After your funnel of earth has lost all the water that will 
run from it, it is still wet. This wetness is caused by what 
is called capillary water. 

Capillary water exists in the form of thin films around 
the soil particles and in the spaces between them, as de- 
scribed in an earlier chapter. Each separate particle is sur- 
rounded by its own film, while larger films bind the separate 
particles together in granules. Since the particles of a given 
weight of soil of fine texture present a larger surface area 
than the particles of a soil of coarse texture, it is evident 
that the finer the soil the greater the amount of capillary 
water required to make up the films. 

Plant growth and capillary water. — It is the capillary 
water of the soil that plants use in their growth. Their 
root-tips come in contact with the water films surrounding 
the soil particles and drink this water in. One of the first 
requisites of soil to produce a good crop, therefore, is its 



476 AGRICULTURE AND 

ability to act as a reservoir for a large amount of capillary 
water. 

Capacity of Soils of Capillary Water 

Soils differ greatly in their capacity for capillary water. 
This can easily be shown by a simple experiment. Bake a 
pint of sand and a pint of clay until all the water is dried 
out; then place the samples in separate funnels over the 
lower ends of which are tied pieces of cheese cloth. Now 
slowly pour water from a graduate over each soil until the 
water begins to drip from the bottom of the funnel. Note 
carefully how much water was required in each case. 

Soil texture and capillary water. — Because of the 
fineness of their texture, clay and silt soils have much 
greater capacity for capillary water than sandy or gravelly 
soils. Under average field conditions the difference in the 
amount of capillary water held in the first two feet of fully 
saturated soil is about as follows : 

Sandy loam soil will hold 5 inches of water 

Clay loam soil will hold 73^ 

Muck soil will hold 12^ 

This is to say that it would require a sheet of water five 
inches deep to supply the capillary water for the first two 
feet of saturated sandy soil ; a sheet of water seven and one- 
half inches deep for the first two feet of saturated clay soil ; 
and a sheet twelve and one-half inches deep for the first 
two feet of saturated muck soil. 

Drawing ground water by capillarity. — A very simple 
experiment will test the capacity of different soils for draw- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 477 

ing capillary water from below. Take four glass tubes at 
least one inch in diameter and from fifteen to twenty inches 
long, or four chimneys from student-lamps, and arrange 
them suspended in a rack. Tie over the lower end of each a 
piece of cheese-cloth. Fill the tubes with soils of different 
texture, from fine clay to coarse sand. Place a pan beneath 
the tubes, and pour water into it until the water stands half 
an inch above the bottom of the tubes. Now watch the wa- 
ter rise in the different soils. Keep accurate track of the 
time required, and of the height reached in each. 

Humus and capillary water. — The capacity of any 
soil for holding capillary water is greatly increased by the 
presence of decaying organic matter. It has been care- 
fully estimated that one ton of humus will absorb two tons 
of water and give it up as needed by growing plants. 

Tillage and Soil Wafer 

One of the chief problems of agriculture is to conserve 
the capillary water of the soil and make it available for 
plant growth. Capillary water is removed from the soil 
in two ways, (1) by evaporation, and (2) by being absorbed 
by the roots of growing plants. What is lost by evapora- 
tion is wasted as far as crops are concerned. 

Tillage for conserving capillary moisture. — All loos- 
ening of the soil increases its absorbing power, and thus 
causes rain to soak into the ground instead of running off 
along the top. The deeper the plowing the greater this ef- 
fect will be. Fall plowing, by opening the soil for the ab- 



478 AGRICULTURE AND 

sorption of the winter snows, adds to the amount of soil 
water. 

The most effective tillage for conserving capillary water, 
however, is the frequent cultivation during the growing sea- 
son which results in a fine soil mulch over the surface. To 
see the truth of this, make the following experiment : 

Effect of a soil mulch. — Fill two glasses nearly full 
of the same soil ; if the soil is dry, add an equal amount of 
water to each, making the soil fairly damp, but not soaked ; 
pack them equally by striking the glass gently down on the 
table. Now put a half inch of fine, dry road dust over the 
top of one, leaving the other without covering. Set the two 
glasses side by side, and note the time it requires for each 
to dry out by losing its capillary water through evapora- 
tion. 

The fine mulch made by frequent harrowings and culti- 
vations has precisely the same effect on our fields. In dry 
regions summer fallowing is used for the purpose of col- 
lecting a supply of capillary water. Whatever rain falls is 
saved by keeping the surface covered with a fine soil mulch, 
and what moisture is drawn up toward the surface from the 
ground water by capillary attraction is also conserved for 
the crop that is to follow. 

Soil Drainage 

Necessary as water is to plants, however, much of our 
soil needs drainage to rid it of an oversupply of free or 
gravitational water. There are some eighty million acres of 
marsh lands in the United States. The greater part of this 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



479 




The riglit kind of mulch for 
moisture conservation is 
granular — that is, the dirt 
should not be pulverized too 
finely. 



The wrong Icind of mulch. The 
ground is almost dust. Such 
mulch blows away easily. 







The granular mulch rained up- 
on and left standing for a 
number of days. Observe 
that the ground is cracking 
and that moisture is escaping 
through these cracks. The 
crust can be easily broken. 




Dust mulch rained upon and 
left standing in the hot sun. 
Note that the crust has 
cracked, and that the moist- 
ure is escaping very rapidly. 
It is impossible to work up 
this seed bed properly. 



480 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Undisked stubble plowed. Ob- 
serve that the ground is 
turned up in lumps; that 
there are open spaces at the 
bottom of the furrow which 
prevent the close compact- 
ness of the lower portion of 
the turned furrow with the 
soil beneath. 



Disked stubble plowed. The 
mulch formed by the disk 
harrow fills up the open 
spaces at the bottom of the 
furrow, thereby forming a 
close connection with the sub- 
surface. 





d 


^^^^ 


m 




m 




S 


^^^ 


W^^^^ 


gP; 


^^ 


' ^-'^'^ 


^^^^ 


w 


-I- i 


m- 






This illustration represents the This illustration represents the 



field above treated with a 
pegtooth harrow after plow- 
ing. The surface is in com- 
paratively good condition, but 
the bottom is not compact. 



field above harrowed with a 
pegtooth harrow. The air 
spaces are still at the bottom 
of the furrow. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 481 

waste territory would make excellent farm land if properly 
drained. 

But perhaps fully as important Is the occasional small 
piece of wet ground on farms now under tillage. In cer- 
tain regions there is hardly a farm that does not have its 
low marshy places where crops drown out in wet times, or 
which are allowed to lie without cultivation. In nearly all 
cases this land could be made the equal of the remainder 
of the farm by drainage and proper management. 

Surface drainage. — Surface drainage is never so 
thorough and satisfactory as underdrainage, yet it will often 
improve conditions enough to pay. By surface drainage 
is meant the opening of runs or ditches to allow the escape 
of surface water that otherwise would stand on the soil, 
flood over lower ground, or percolate down to add to the 
gravitational water already in the subsoil. 

Low ground is sometimes plowed in narrow strips, the 
frequent dead furrows allowing surface drainage. If there 
is a slight slope and the furrows can open freely at the end, 
this will prove of great benefit. Where such simple drain- 
age will not serve, it is sometimes necessary to construct 
open ditches, though these should give way to underdrain- 
age when this Is possible. For underdrainage Is under most 
conditions a more successful way of removing the water, 
and it saves much loss of ground and the cutting up of 
fields. 

Making surface drains. — Surface runs which are only 
required to remove surplus water during flood seasons may 
be made one and one-half feet deep and ten feet wide at the 



482 



AGRICULTURE AND 



top at a cost of about twenty-five cents a rod, using a road 
grader for the excavating. Such shallow runs are often 
seeded, and the edges leveled oflf and cultivated, thus avoid- 
ing waste of land. Open ditches of this kind are often de- 
sirable in connection with underdrainage. They also serve 
as eaves-troughs to prevent flood water of surrounding 
uplands from entering lower areas. 







'^>^^//^''Xf/^//^/^.;¥/^'y. 




V ' 



Section of common tile drain. 

a. Ditch prepared for tile. 

b. Tile hook and wooden rim for laying in. 

c. Tile draining scoop. 

Deeper ditches are required when the main drain is to 
receive the discharge of lateral drains. The size and depth 
will depend on the territory to be drained, and the fall of 
the ditch. In the Middle West, open ditches, many of them 
miles in length, are being constructed, each farm served 
paying its share of the expense. Open lateral ditches or 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 483 

underground tile then empty into this main drain. Under 
average conditions, the cost of opening a ditch seven feet 
deep and twenty feet wide at the top by means of a dredging 
machine has been about one thousand dollars a mile. 

Underdrainage. — Underdrainage has the advantage 
of carrying off the ground water to any desired depth. 
This is an important matter in the growth of most crops. 
For where the level of ground water is near the surface, 
plants will not strike their roots deep in the soil, but spread 
them out near the top. This leaves the crop at the mercy 
of drought later in the season, when the upper layers of 
soil dry out. Deep rooting is also necessary to make full 
use of the plant food of the soil. 

Tile underdrains. — Burnt clay and cement are the 
materials chiefly used for underdrains in most regions. 
These materials are made into cylinders from three to thir- 
ty-six inches in diameter, and from twelve to thirty inches 
in length. For lateral drains, tiles four or five inches in 
diameter are most used. The main outlet drain usually 
requires tiles from eight to twelve inches. 

Moderately heavy clay soils require laterals about four 
rods apart to carry off the rainfall. If the subsoil is sandy, 
the laterals. may be as much as eight rods apart. Sometimes 
the marshiness of a piece of ground is caused by seepage 
leading to it from some higher area. In this case, there 
should be a line of tile at the edge of the lower ground to 
receive the seepage. 

Several lines of parallel drains are more economical than 
one central line into which diagonal laterals run. This is 



484 



AGRICULTURE AND 



because with parallel drains there is less area receiving 
double drainage. Several parallel lines can often be car- 
ried into one line of larger tile, and all discharge through 
the same outlet, thus saving trouble and expense. 

Depth of tile. — Tile should be placed deep enough 
that the level of ground v^ater will not stand too near 
the surface, and yet not too deep to carry ofif the gravita- 
tional water without allowing it to stay too long in the 
soil. In clay subsoil the most common depth is about three 
feet. In partially sandy subsoils, the depth may be fou*- feet. 
All tile meant to catch seepage should be as deep as four feet. 

Gradient, or fall. — The larger tiles may be laid with 
a fall of an inch to one hundred feet. Laterals should have 
from two to three times this much fall. Lines for catching 
seepage should have still greater slope; as much as five 
inches to one hundred feet, if this is possible. 

Cost of tiling. — The cost of tiling will, of course, vary 
with the size of tile used, the depth it is laid, and the 
character of the soil. The average cost under normal con- 
ditions is about as shown in the following table: 







Depth til 


e is laid 




Size of tile 


3 feet 


4 feet 


5 feet 


6 feet 


4 inch 


$ .30 


$ .50 


$ .80 


$1.25 


5 inch 


.35 


.55 


.85 


1.30 


6 inch 


.40 


.60 


.90 


1.38 


8 inch 


.45 


.65 


.95 


1.40 


10 inch 


.50 


.70 


1.00 


1.45 


12 inch 


.55 


.75 


1.05 


1.50 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



485 




':^D£^c-c/rKa7/7e, 



_z 



Fig. 1. 
System of drainage with 
double-drained area. 



Fig. 2 
Minimum area of double- 
drained laud. 




Fi?. 3. 
Kandom drainage system will not give the 
desired results. 



486 AGRICULTURE AND 

The United States Department of Agriculture offers 
the following advice concerning drainage: 

Placing the Tiling. — On rolling lands where only oc- 
casional wet spots are to be drained the random system 
(Fig. 3) is commonly used. On level lands needing arti- 
ficial drainage a uniform system (Figs. 1 and 2) must be 
planned that will provide drains for the entire area. The 
most economical arrangement of such a system is one which 
permits the use of long laterals and requires the shortest 
total length of main drains. The advantage of this ar- 
rangement is shown graphically by Figures 1 and 2, in 
which the systems drain equal areas. The cost of pur- 
chasing and putting in the tile is, however, considerably 
greater for the system shown in Figure 2. 

Size of the Tiles. — No hard and fast rule can be given 
for determining the sizes of tile to be used. Drains should 
be large enough to remove the surplus water before the 
crops are injured, even after a heavy rainfall in continued 
wet weather. It is better to use sizes too large than too 
small, and no .tile less than four inches inside diameter 
should be used. In the Middle West the tendency is to 
use nothing smaller than five-inch tile. 

The mains should be large enough to take the flow from 
the laterals. Actual practise has shown that for the dark 
silt loams of Illinois and Iowa, where the average annual 
rainfall is approximately thirty-six inches, eight-inch tile 
having a fall of two inches in one hundred feet will pro- 
vide outlet drainage for forty acres, seven-inch tile for 
thirty acres, six-inch tile for nineteen acres, five-inch tile 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 487 

for ten acres, and four-inch tile for six acres. On stiff soil 
with equal rainfall the same-sized outlets will be adequate, 
but on the level soils of the South Atlantic and gulf states 
where the annual rainfall is approximately fifty inches, only 
about one-half the areas named above can be drained with 
tile of these sizes. 



488 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XXX 
MANURES AS FERTILIZERS 

THE term manure was originally used to include any- 
thing- which, when appHed to the soil, increased its 
productivity. Thus, George Washington "manured" his 
thin Mount Vernon acres with the rich muck from the over- 
flow of the Potomac. The Romans and Greeks "manured" 
their land with chalk, marl and wood ashes. The word ma- 
nure is now generally used in practical American agricul- 
ture to include (1) farm manure, such as comes from the 
barnyard ; and (2) green manure or crops such as legumes 
plowed under to increase soil fertility. 

Value of Farm Manure 

The various classes of farm manures are described by 
Doctor H. J. Wheeler, of the Rhode Island State College, as 
follows : "The term 'farm manure' covers properly the 
dung of all the domestic animals kept on the farm, includ- 
ing the customary litter, night-soil, peat, muck, leaf mold, 
other vegetable refuse, and composts. Barnyard manure, 
as usually understood, relates to the Mung' of neat cattle 
with the usual litter. Stable manure is a term at present 
more commonly applied to the 'dung' and 'litter' from horse 
stables." 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 489 

Value of manure. — One of the best evidences of good 
farm management is a well-kept manure heap and its care- 
ful distribution to the fields. It has been estimated by 
experts that if animals are kept in stalls or pens throughout 
the year, given a reasonable amount of litter for bedding 
and all the manure saved, the annual value of the manure 
from each animal will be : horses or mules, twenty-seven 
dollars ; cattle, twenty dollars ; hogs, eight dollars ; sheep, 
two dollars. Differently stated, the value of the manure 
produced during the seven winter months on a farm keep- 
ing four horses, twenty cows, fifty sheep and ten hogs 
would be at least two hundred and fifty dollars. These 
figures are based on the cost of an equal amount of com- 
mercial fertilizer. 

The immense value of farm manure to our soils is not yet 
fully realized. Said Doctor C. G. Hopkins, "If corn were 
to sell at one dollar and five cents a bushel, the aggregate 
corn crop would then be worth approximately what the 
aggregate crop of manure is worth each year." 

Manure and fertility. — Because manure is so valuable 
and the maintenance of fertility so difficult, every care 
should be taken to get the most possible out of the barn- 
yard manures. Even the best that can be done with it, 
all the manure that can be produced on a farm will not 
wholly return to the land what the crops take from it. 

While feeding farm crops to animals and returning the 
manure to the soil is far ahead of selling the crops off the 
farm, this process is also in a sense wasteful of fertility. 
It has been carefully estimated that domestic animals pro- 



490 



AGRICULTURE AND 



duce for our tables only about twenty per cent, of the food 
value they themselves eat, thus wasting four-fifths of what 
they consume from the soil. No wonder that meat is an 
expensive food, available to the common people only in 
favored countries like our own. Hundreds of millions of 
people, in many parts of the world, are compehed to live on 
a vegetable diet alone so as to save this wastage. Whether 
the American nation shall finally come to this condition will 
depend in no small degree on the faithfulness and skill with 
which the animal wastage is returned to the soil. 

Manurial value of farm crops. — While Ii is true that 
not all the fertility taken from the soil by farm crops can 
be returned by using the manure from the feeding of crops, 
no small portion of it can. The manurial value of different 
farm products, based on the cost of commercial fertilizers, 
is shown in the following table: (Fanners' Bulletin 193, 
United States Department of Agriculture.) 



Value as fertilizer in one ton of farm products. 



Product 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
acid 


Potash 


Total 


Meadow hay 


$ 3.47 
6.83 
8.35 
17.87 
23.06 
6.38 
6.21 
5.62 


$ 0.57 

.78 

3.82 

2.25 

3.96 

1.11 

.87 

.83 


$ 1.06 

1.46 

1.14 

.99 

1.17 

.42 

.35 

.30 


$ 5.10 


Clover hay _ 


9.07 


Wheat bran 


13.31 


Linseed meal 

Cottonseed meal 

Wheat 


21.11 

28.16 

7.91 


Oats — 


7.43 


Corn 


6.75 



We see from this table that the farmer who sells 
a ton of meadow hay loses from his farm fertilizer value 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 491 

that would cost about five dollars if purchased in commer- 
cial form. If he sells clover hay, he loses almost as much 
value in fertilizer as his hay brings him. If he pays twenty 
dollars a ton for wheat bran he gets over thirteen dollars' 
worth of fertilizer, leaving the feeding cost about seven 
dollars, 

Bacterial value of manure. — Of course It is evident 
that these values will not be obtained from the feeding of 
farm crops unless the manure is carefully saved and prop- 
erly used. Not only has manure great chemical value be- 
cause of supplying the elements needed in plant growth, 
but it has bacterial value as well. For manure contains 
an enormous number of bacteria, many of which aid in 
plant growth. The excrement of all animals Is swarming 
with micro-organisms, many kinds of which are necessary 
to plant growth. It is calculated that as many as one hun- 
dred millions of these may be found in a single grain of 
offal. 

Certain conditions affect the value of manure. In gen- 
eral, the manure of mature animals has greater fertilizing 
value than that of young animals. The manure of animals 
that are fed chiefly on grains, milk or other rich foods is 
richer than that of animals living on grass or roughage 
containing but little nitrogen. 

Preventing Loss from Manure 

It is not to be forgotten that the liquid excretions of 
animals possess as high manurial value as the solid portions. 
Any plan for conserving the value of farm manure must 



492 AGRICULTURE AND 

therefore provide for saving the hquid as weh as the solid 
part. 

Although there is a steady and unavoidable loss from 
manure when it is exposed to the air, the greatest sources 
of loss under general farm conditions are two: (1) fermen- 
tation, or heating, which reduces the supply of nitrogen; 
and (2) weathering, or leaching from rains, in which all the 
valuable elements suflfer great losses. 

Controlling fermentation. — The fermentation of ma- 
nure is caused by two different kinds of bacteria, one of 
which works near the outskirts of the heap where there is 
air, and one deeper down where the air is excluded. A 
certain degree of fermentation is necessary to the best 
rotting of the manure, yet overheating, or the "fire- 
fanging" so common in horse and sheep manure, greatly 
reduces its value. 

The rapidity of fermentation can be controlled in part 
by packing. If the heap is too loosely built, the air-working 
bacteria become active, the heat grows intense and nitrogen 
and humus-making material are lost. On the other hand, 
if the heap is packed too closely, the decomposition is slow 
and the manure does not have the best effect when spread 
on the soil. Frequent sprinkling with water will aid in 
checking too rapid fermentation. 

With some classes of farm stock, as beef cattle, or 
horses running in open sheds, tlie "deep-stall" method is a 
satisfactory way of collecting the manure. Under this plan 
the manure is simply allowed to accumulate in the sheds or 
stalls until it has reached one, two, or more feet in depth, 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 493 

when it is removed and spread at once upon the soil. The 
close trampling serves to reduce the amount of wastage. 
Of course the matter of cleanliness and hygiene is to be 
taken into account. For obvious reasons this method would 
not be suitable for dairy cows. During the warm season, 
such places are also a breeding place for flies. 

Preventing leaching. — Great loss is suffered from 
leaching when manure is exposed to the weather. It has 
been found that six months' leaching of horse manure re- 
duces its value fully one-half. The custom, once rather 
prevalent, of throwing the manure out under the eaves of 
the barn, where it would not only be exposed to the rains, 
but also to the water from the roof, is so wasteful as to have 
nothing to commend it. 

The remedy lies in collecting manure under cover, so 
that it is not exposed to leaching. It should also be pro- 
vided with a water-proof kit and floor for the heap, so that 
the liquid parts may not drain away into the soil. The 
profits from open-yard, badly leached manure are so small 
as hardly to pay for spreading it on the field. It is a care- 
less, shiftless method of farming that allows this great 
waste, so easily prevented. Old piles of manure that have 
been lying for several years while the land has been sufifer- 
ing for want of its help are a poor advertisement for the 
farmer and surely an eyesore and a nuisance. 

The Application of Manure 

No general rule can be given for the application of 
manure to the soil. The mOst common European practise 



494 



AGRICULTURE AND 



is to use it as a top-dressing. With thoroughly rotted 
manures, especially if the application can soon be followed 
by harrowing or disking, there is probably no better way. 
Where the manure must be applied without rotting, this will 
of course not work. Economical distribution of labor also 
demands that the manure be handled at some other time 
than when the soil is just ready for the crop. The custom 




The wrong way to handle barnyard manures. 

on most farms is therefore to distribute the manure in the 
fall or early spring and then plow it under. 

Right and wrong methods. — For heavy soils, which 
need to be made porous by the addition of vegetable matter, 
it is well to spread manure on the field fresh from the stalls 
without waiting for it to rot. It should not, however, be 
allowed to lie long before being plowed under, as much of 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



495 



its strength is lost in this way. For all lighter soils, and 
especially such as have a tendency to dry out, the manure 
should be rotted before being applied. 

Throwing the manure in heaps on the field and later 
spreading it is not good practise. For here also the leach- 
ing takes place. Some of the best elements of the manure 




The better way. Manure carrier and spreader. 

are drained into the ground immediately under the heap, 
and some are lost by passing off into the air. The most 
economical and satisfactory method of spreading man- 
ure is by use of the manure spreader. This machine saves 
labor, and distributes the manure more evenly than is pos- 
sible by hand. 

The amount of manure to be used will depend on the 
strength of the manure and the condition of the soil. Five 
tons to the acre is a light application, ten or twelve tons 
average, and twenty tons a heavy application. 



496 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Green Manuring 

Meaning of green manuring. — By green manuring is 
meant plowing under any green crop for the purpose of im- 
proving the soil. Green manures improve the soil both by 
adding to its fertility and bettering its physical condition. 




Hogs in clover. After pasturing, this clover will be turned 
under as green manure. 



If the soil is light and sandy, green manure prevents it from 
drying out. On heavy clay soil green manure has cjuite the 
opposite effect, because of admitting the air, loosening the 
soil and improving its drainage. 

Green manure crops. — For most purposes the best 
green manure crops are the nitrogen gatherers already dis- 
cussed — the clovers, alfalfa, cow-peas, soy-beans, the vetches 
and other legumes. Rye, buckwheat, rape and turnips are 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 497 

among other crops used as green manures. This group, 
however, lacks the advantage of gathering nitrogen. 

Green manuring must be practised if we are to maintain 
our soil fertility. Barnyard manure can not be excelled as 
far as it goes. But it does not go far enough. For example, 
they tell us that there are animals enough in the state 
of Illinois to produce but one and one-half tons of man- 
ure annually for each acre of farmed land in that state. 
This Is, of course, much less than is required to compen- 
sate for the drain upon the soil from the growing of crops. 

The great value of green crops turned under as manure 
is seen in the fact that one ton of clover plowed under will 
return as much organic matter to the soil as will be supplied 
from three tons of clover fed to animals, even if none of 
the manure were wasted. The same truth will hold in gen- 
eral for other green crops, such as cow-peas, alfalfa, or soy- 
beans. 



498 AGRICULTURE AND 

CHAPTER XXXI 
THE USE OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 

ALTHOUGH proper systems of manuring and rotation 
Lof crops will insure fertility on naturally good soil for 
many years, the land will finally become exhausted under 
normal treatment. This is for the simple reason that the 
crops remove from the soil each year more of the elements 
necessary to their growth than are returned to it. The de- 
ficiency must finally be made up if permanent fertility is to 
be maintained. This is accomplished by supplementing 
manuring and rotation with what are called the commercial 
fertilisers. 

Importance of Commercial Fertilizers 
The use of commercial fertilizers plays an important 
part in the production of crops in most European countries. 
Through their use farm crops in some countries are in 
general on the increase, while in large regions of our own 
country they have decreased. For example, the Director 
General of Agriculture for Holland gives the following 
table showing the increase of staple crops in that country 
during a period of sixty years : 

AVERAGE YIELD PER HECTARE IN HECTOLITRES 

1851-1860 1891-1900 1906-1908 

Wheat 19.3 24.9 32.4 

Rye 18.0 21.0 23.0 

Barley 32.8 41.8 46.5 

Oats 32.4 42.8 50.0 

Potatoes 120.0 181.0 211.0 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 499 

The Director General attributes this increase to the use 
of commercial fertilisers combined with better selection of 
seed, manuring and improved tillage. 

Increased yields in England. — England has during 
the last eighty years succeeded in increasing her yield of 
wheat in certain regions by about eighty per cent,, the larg- 
est single factor, as judged by their agricultural experts, 
being the use of commercial fertilizers. England now se- 
cures an average of thirty-two bushels of wheat to the 
acre as against about fourteen bushels in the United States. 

Increase in Germany. — Professor Von Seelhorst, of 
the Royal Agricultural Experiment Station of Gottinger, 
writing to Doctor C. G. Hopkins concerning the increase 
of crop yield in Germany, says: "I believe that the prin- 
cipal increase of the harvest is to be attributed in part to 
the application of artificial 'fertilizers themselves and in 
part to their combination with green manures. Through 
the application of the two the yield upon the average has 
been doubled on our common light soils. In some cases 
the yield has even been increased two and one-half to 
three fold. Clay soils become tillable to a greater degree 
when applications of artificial fertilizers are made. In 
general, I assume that of the one hundred per cent, increase 
in the yield, fifty per cent, can be attributed to the use of 
artificial fertilizers, twenty-five per cent, to better tillage, 
fifteen per cent, to the use of better seed, ten per cent, to 
better crop rotation." 

Increase in France. — In France, where there has been 
a similar increase in yield, the Minister of Agriculture es- 



500 AGRICULTURE AND 

timates that the effects of farm manures and artificial fer- 
tilizers together account for from fifty to seventy per cent, 
of the increase, better tillage from fifteen to thirty per 
cent, and seed selection from five to tv^enty per cent. Italy, 
following the example of England, Germany and France, 
uses large amounts of commercial fertilizers. In 1907 
Italy, w^ith an area only about twice the size of Illinois, used 
over one million tons of phosphorus, ninety thousand tons 
of nitrogen fertilizers, and nearly eight thousand tons of 
potassium salts. Germany did buy large quantities of phos- 
phates from the United States and other countries. 

We must use commercial fertilizers. — That the United 
States must follow the example of these older countries 
there can be no doubt. The pressing necessity is that we 
shall come to a realization of this fact before our soil is 
further depleted. Speaking on this point. Doctor Hopkins 
says: 

"Do you ask how the smaller European countries, such 
as England and Germany, maintain their crop yields at a 
point about double the average of the United States? In 
large part by the application of American fertility which we 
export in foodstuffs and in phosphate rock. England raises 
50,000,000 bushels of wheat and imports 200,000,000 of 
wheat, 100,000,000 of corn, 800,000,000 pounds of oil cake, 
and other foodstuffs, and great quantities of phosphate 
from the United States and other countries. Germany raises 
125,000,000 bushels of wheat, but Germany consumes 200,- 
000,000 bushels of wheat, and imports, besides, 40,000,000 
bushels of corn, more than 1,000,000,000 pounds of oil cake 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 501 

and some other foodstuffs, large amounts of phosphate, 
etc. ; while her principal export is 2,000,000,000 pounds of 
sugar, which contains absolutely no plant food of value. 
Denmark produces 4,000,000 bushels of wheat and, in addi- 
tion, imports 5,000,000 bushels of wheat, 15,000,000 bushels 
of corn, 800,000,000 pounds of oil cake, and large quanti- 
ties of phosphate; while Denmark exports, principally, 
175,000,000 pounds of butter, which contains practically no 
plant food of value. Belgium raises 12,000,000 bushels of 
wheat and imports 60,000,000 bushels." 

Increased use of commercial fertilizers. — Commercial 
fertilizers have long been used in a small way, but it is only 
recently that they are coming to be employed on a large 
scale. The farmers of the United States are now paying 
out considerably more than $100,000,000 a year for such 
fertilizers. There are at present more than five hundred 
manufacturers selling the various fertilizing products. 

Since, as we have seen, only three of the elements neces- 
sary to plant production are likely to run short, commercial 
fertilizers are commonly limited to these three — nitrogen, 
phosphorus and potassium. Lime, though not strictly a 
fertilizer, is often, because of its beneficial effects on the 
soil, treated as a fertilizer. 

Commercial Phosphorus Fertilisers 

Phosphorus has been called the "key to permanent agri- 
culture in the United States." While there is probably no 
one "key," it is nevertheless true that phosphorus must 
finally be added in sufficient quantities to make up the 



502 AGRICULTURE AND 

difference between what phosphorus is removed from the 
soil by crops and what is returned in the form of farm 
manure. In regions where grain is sold from the farm the 
problem becomes all the more acute, since about three- 
fourths of the phosphorus used by the plant goes to the 
grain. And large quantities of grain must always, of course, 
be sold from the farms in order to feed the people and ani- 
mals who live in towns and cities. 

Forms of Commercial Phosphorus Fertilizers. — Phos- 
phorus fertilizers are supplied commercially in the 
form (1) of the bones of animals killed at the slaughter- 
houses; (2) of mineral deposits in phosphate rock; immense 
beds of which are found in Tennessee, South Carolina, 
Florida, Wyoming, Utah, Idaho and Montana; and (3) of 
slag from the furnaces where certain ores containing phos- 
phorus are smelted. 

Bone phosphate is sold either as ground bone, which is 
raw bone ground up ; or bone meal, which is made by grind- 
ing after the bones have been steamed under high pressure 
to remove the fats and oils. 

Mineral phosphate is sold in two forms: (1) that first 
treated with sulphuric acid, and (2) the natural rock finely 
ground. The first form has the advantage of being more 
immediately available for plant use. The second form is 
considerably less expensive and, when mixed with organic 
matter like some form of manure, proves equally as valu- 
able as the more expensive compound. 

Native mineral phosphate. — The supply of high-grade 
phosphate has been thought by experts to be limited in this 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 503 

country. Discoveries of beds of high-grade phosphate in 
Idaho, Wyoming and Montana have been welcomed with 
great satisfaction, and serve to reUeve the apprehension 
caused by the rapid exhaustion of the phosphate fields in 
eastern states. The discovery of great phosphate fields 
in northern Africa turns the European demand in that di- 
rection, thus serving further to conserve our supply for 
domestic use. 

There is no doubt that some form of phosphorus ferti- 
lizer could be applied with profit to thousands of farms in 
nearly all parts of the United States. The intelligent farmer 
will, however, not guess, but will find out, either by his own 
investigation or by consulting with agricultural experts at 
experiment stations and colleges acquainted with local con- 
ditions, what the needs of the soil are and what form of 
phosphates is most economical and best adapted to the 
requirements. 

Effects of phosphate fertilizers. — The effects of the 
application of phosphate to depleted soil is shown in an 
experiment on a run-down Wisconsin farm where a portion 
of a field was treated with three hundred pounds of acid 
phosphate to the acre and then planted to corn. The re- 
mainder of the field was planted to corn without the appli- 
cation of phosphate and both plats given the same tillage. 
The increase from the phosphate is shown in the fact that 
when cut^ the corn and stover from the treated plat weighed 
two and three-fourths times as much per acre as from the 
untreated. 

At the Ashland, Wisconsin, Experiment Station, a test 



504 AGRICULTURE AND . 

was made to determine the effect of phosphorus fertilizers 
on heavy red clay as a supplement to manure. The crop 
raised was potatoes. With manure alone the yield was 
eighty-seven bushels per acre, and with rock phosphate 
added to the manure, one hundred twenty-eight bushels. 
In raising rutabagas the yield with manure was one hun- 
dred eight bushels, and with manure and phosphate one 
hundred thirty-seven bushels. 

The following table shows the effect of phosphorus 
fertilizer in a three-year rotation of crops on average clay 
loam soil of Ohio, as determined by Director Thorne, of the 
Ohio Experiment Station : 







Yi 


elds per 


A( 


:re 


Treatment 


Corn, 




Wheat, 




Hay, 




10 years 




10 years 




6 years 




Bus, 




Bus. 




Lbs. 


None 


35 
51 




10 
18 




2,000 


Manure 


2,400 


Manure and acid phosphate 


60 




25 




3,500 


Manure and rock phosphate 


60 




24 




3,800 



Cost of Phosphorus Fertilizers. — The determination 
of what form of phosphorus fertilizers to use rests on (1) 
availability of supply, (2) cost, and (3) adaptability to 
soil conditions. 

Bone meal. — Ground steamed bone meal containing 
about twenty-eight per cent, of phosphoric acid costs from 
twenty-two to twenty-five dollars a ton at a central market 
like Chicago. This is the form usually best adapted for 
marsh soils or for upland clay loams that have become acid. 
It has the advantage that it becomes available to plant use 
more rapidly than the raw rock form. When used as a sup- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 505 

plement to manure in a four-year crop rotation it should be 
applied at the rate of from two hundred to three hundred 
pounds to the acre every fourth year. A convenient way 
to apply it, especially if a manure spreader is used, is to 
spread a proportionate amount on top of each load of 
manure as it goes to the field. 

Rock phosphate. — Raw rock phosphate contains from 
twenty-three to twenty-eight per cent, of phosphoric acid. 
It varies in cost from three to five dollars a ton, at the 
mines, to which freight charges must be added. The rock 
is finely ground so that about ninety per cent, of it will pass 
through a sixty-mesh screen. This is the cheapest form of 
phosphate on the market, at least for regions where dis- 
tance from the mines does not make freight charges exces- 
sive. On clay soils that have become considerably 
exhausted the first application should be at the rate of about 
half a ton to the acre. After that, if manure is used, about 
one hundred pounds to the acre each year will maintain the 
soil phosphorus under average conditions. 

An excellent way to apply rock phosphate is to mix it 
with the litter of the stable. It readily absorbs the elements 
of the manure and is distributed to the soil without extra 
labor. Care must of course be used to get the right amount 
for a given quantity of manure. A little experience will 
make this easily possible. 

Acid phosphate. — This form of phosphate is prepared 
either from rock phosphate or steamed bone, by combining 
the raw phosphate with sulphuric acid. The acid changes 
the phosphorus into a form more easily absorbed by plants 



506 AGRICULTURE AND 

and the acid phosphate will show its effects more quickly 
than raw rock phosphate. Because of this fact it is often 
best to make the initial application in acid phosphate form, 
both to test the need of phosphate and to secure earlier 
returns from its use. From three hundred to three hundred 
and fifty pounds per acre is an average application of acid 
phosphate. It should be worked well into the soil before 
planting the crop. 

The Use of Lime on Soils 

Lime can hardly be called a fertilizer, since it does not 
contain any of the elements in which the soil is generally 
lacking. Yet because of its action on certain other elements 
of the soil it is necessary to plant production. When lime 
does not already exist in the soil it must be added in com- 
mercial form if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained. 
The purpose of lime is to cure the soil of its acid condition. 

Acid soils. — All soils have a tendency to become sour, 
or acid. This acidity comes about in several different ways : 
in the decay of organic matter in the soil, certain acids are 
produced ; hence the soils rich in humus are likely to be 
acid. Plant roots give off acid in the process of their 
growth, and this acid remains in the soil. The action of 
the nitrifying bacteria also adds to the acidity of the soil. 
Heavy non-porous clay soils which do not allow the en- 
trance of fresh air are usually sour. 

The degree of acidity of soils can be judged (1) by the 
refusal of certain plants to groiv in them ; for example, the 
legumes will not thrive in acid soils, and the failure of clover 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 507 

or alfalfa to do well should arouse a suspicion of too much 
acid. (2) The presence of such weeds as sheep-sorrel, 
horsetail rush, corn spurry and wood horsetail indicate 
acid. (3) Blue litmus paper turns red when placed in con- 
tact with a soil containing acid. (4) Other tests are 
used in various sections. 

Liming acid soils. — Lime is a certain remedy for acid 
soils. In some regions, especially where limestone abounds, 
the natural supply of lime in the soil is sufficient to overcome 
the surplus acid. In other regions, lime needs to be applied 
in commercial form. This is the only cure for acid soil 
within reach of the farmer. 

Nearly all prairie soil is in some degree acid, especially 
on slopes where leaching of the soil has carried away the 
original deposits of lime, and wherever large supplies of 
humus have formed from the decay of organic matter. 
Thousands of acres of acid land would well repay the cost 
of liming by increased yields. Llany farmers now look on 
liming as a regular and necessary requirement. Of course 
lime should not be applied unless needed, but the tests are 
so simple that this is easily determined. 

Forms of lime used. — Lime is available for applica- 
tion to the soil in several forms: (1) Quicklime, or lime 
ready for use in making plaster, when finely ground may be 
applied at the rate of about one ton to the acre. (2) Air- 
slacked lime, or ordinary lime that has been exposed to the 
air, is an excellent form, and may be applied at the rate 
of two or more tons to tlie acre. (3) Ground or finely 
crushed limestone direct from the quarries is widely used 



508 AGRICULTURE AND 

in regions where it is easily obtainable. From one to two 
tons to the acre will usually correct the acidity. 

The form of lime to be used will depend chiefly on which 
is most easily available and cheapest. The amount required 
is determined by the degree of acidity in the soil. 

Commercial Potassium Fertilisers 

Potassium fertilizers are available in several commercial 
forms, none of which is produced in large quantity in this 
country. The potash mines of Germany have been the chief 
source of supply. 

The crude potash may be used on the soil directly as 
mined, or it may be made into more concentrated form. 
It is usually sold commercially as a fertilizer (1) as muriate 
of potash, (2) as saltpeter of potash, and (3) as kainit. 

German potash mines. — The German mines of potash 
salts are one of the most valuable natural resources pos- 
sessed by any nation. They were discovered many years 
ago, and were at first considered merely an obstacle in the 
way of producing common salt. About half a century ago 
the value of potash salts began to be understood and many 
companies were formed to operate the German mines. The 
supply there seems practically inexhaustible. 

It is evident, of course, that shipping so great a dis- 
tance will make potassium much more expensive to the 
American farmers than if we had our own deposits. No 
investigations have as yet, however, located any important 
deposits of potassium salts except in Germany and a few 
in Austria. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 509 

The crude potassium salts may be used directly as mined, 
or they may undergo a process of concentration. The chief 
of the crude potassium fertilizers is kainit, which contains 
eleven to thirteen per cent, of potassium. The concentrated 
forms, such as muriate and sulphate contain from forty-five 
to fifty per cent, of potassium. 

Kainit is used extensively in Europe, but less in this 
country, owing to freight charges. Its chief use here has 
been in making up compounds called "complete" com- 
mercial fertilizers. Because of its depressing effect on the 
production of starch and sugar in certain plants, kainit is 
to be avoided in the raising of sugar beets, tobacco and 
potatoes intended f»r the manufacture of starch. 

The use of potassium. — A shortage of potassium in 
the soil affects some plants more than others. The size of 
the grain in wheat and other cereals is lessened by a lack 
of potassium. Clover and timothy will die out on soils 
very deficient in potassium, while red-top is less affected 
by the shortage. It is also thought that certain plant 
diseases, as in potatoes and other crops, are much more 
severe in the absence of sufficient potassium. On the other 
hand, there is strong evidence that the application of potas- 
sium where it Is not needed may even result in positive in- 
jury to the crop. Both because of this fact and the high 
cost of potassium fertilizers it is best to secure expert ad- 
vice before deciding on its application. 

Potassium is not easily leached from the soil and may 
therefore be applied at any convenient time of the year. 
Enough may even be used at one application to serve for 



510 AGRICULTURE AND 

several crops. The quantity needed will, of course, depend 
on the amount already in the soil and on the crop to be 
raised. From one hundred to two hundred pounds to the 
acre is an average application for a crop of small grain, 
while a truck crop may require as much as three hundred 
pounds. 

Other sources of potash production.— Aside from the 
potash mines of Germany the greatest known sources of 
potassium salts are various forms of sea-weeds found 
growing over great areas especially along the Pacific coast 
of the United States. Owing to troubles with the German 
potash producers, and the derangements growing out of 
the European war, extensive and promising experiments 
have been made in producing potassium from kelp and 
other forms of marine plants. This is not a new idea, as 
sea-weeds have been used for this purpose in Spain, Sicily 
and other countries of Europe for many years. 

More common sources of supply for potassium are wood 
ashes, which may contain as much as ten or twelve per cent. 
of potash, and lime-kiln ashes, which contain much less 
potash than wood ashes. The ashes from cotton-seed hulls 
are relatively rich in potash and make a good fertilizer. 
Corn cobs are also rich in potash and have great fertilizing 
value, as do tobacco stems. 

Commercial Nitrogen Fertilizers 

Nitrogen is the most expensive of the three essential 
fertilizers. Commercial nitrogen fertilizer is sold chiefly in 
four different forms: (1) nitrate of soda (Chile salt- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 511 

peter) ; (2) sulphate of ammonia, which is a by-product of 
the manufacture of coke and gas; (3) dried blood, ground 
or steamed hone, or other animal products from packing 
houses ; (4) caleium nitrate, produced from the air by 
electricity. 

The nitrogen fertiHzers cost from fifteen to fifty cents a 
pound. Instead of depending on them the intelligent farmer 
will therefore use every effort to maintain the supply of 
nitrogen in his soil through the use of farm manures and 
the nitrogen-fixing legumes, occasionally plozving tinder a 
crop of clover, alfalfa, cow-peas, vetches or soy-beans. 
Where these can be grown successfully, there will be little 
need to buy nitrogen ; it can be obtained from the seventy 
million pounds of free nitrogen in the atmosphere above 
each and every acre. 

Use of commercial nitrogen. — Yet in many instances 
it will pay to add some form of commercial nitrogen fer- 
tilizer. This is especially true m the production of truck 
crops which will respond to a forcing process. The grass 
crops also respond well to the use of artificial nitrogen. 

Nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia is usually applied 
at the rate of from one hundred pounds to two hundred 
pounds per acre, although certain truck crops may require 
more. To save leaching the fertilizer is often used in two 
or more applications during the growing season. Dried 
blood or steamed bone is commonly applied in quantities 
varying between two hundred and four hundred pounds 
to the acre. 

In maintaining the nitrogen in soils it must not be for- 



512 AGRICULTURE AND 

gotten that an acid condition is hostile to all nitrifying 
legumes, and that this condition is to be remedied by liming. 
The continued application of sulphate of ammonia tends to 
produce soil acidity. This form of fertilizer should there- 
fore usually be accompanied by the use of lime. 

The application of commercial fertilizers. — Because 
commercial fertilizers are expensive, and also for the 
reason that the application of a fertilizer when it is not 
needed may do positive harm, the advice of the county 
agricultural agent or some other agricultural leader of the 
state should be sought before purchasing. An agriculturist, 
after a survey of your soil, may be able not only to suggest 
the best kind for local needs, but also the amount that should 
be used. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 513 



CHAPTER XXXII 
FARM ANIMALS AND AGRICULTURE 

FARM animals form one of the most important sources 
of wealth in the nation. The five most important 
groups of animals, ranked according to their market value, 
are horses, cattle, hogs, mules and sheep. If these animals 
should all be sold, they would bring the enormous sum of 
nearly six billion dollars, or sixty dollars for every man, 
woman and child in the United States. 

Work Animals 

Farm animals serve several important uses: (1) they 
provide food for man, (2) they work for him, and (3) they 
supply various useful products. The total market value of 
the working animals, horses and mules, is slightly greater 
than that of the food producing group, cattle, sheep and 
hogs. 

Using animals for work. — Centuries ago man had not 
yet domesticated the animals and trained them to work for 
him. Since the uses of steam and electricity had not been 
discovered, all labor had to be done by men themselves. 
The implements used for cultivating the soil were all crude 
and ineffective, and could only be operated by hand. It 



514 



AGRICULTURE AND 



then required much more time and effort to secure a living by 
agriculture than it does now. 

One of the greatest lines of progress in America has 
been the substitution of animal and machine power for man 
power in doing farm work. In this we are far ahead of 




Colt judging contest at a Wright County commuuity festival. 
most other nations, even those of Europe. For example, we 
have in the United States almost twenty-five million horses, 
or approximately one to every four persons. In France, one 
horse has to serve ten people ; in Germany, thirteen, and in 
Great Britain, twenty-six. 

Saving in time by work of animals. — The use of work 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 515 

animals has resulted in great saving of time. It has been 
estimated that in 1830 each bushel of wheat grown in the 
United States required three hours of a man's time; it now 
requires less than ten minutes. In 1850 it took a man four 
and one-half hours on an average to grow, harvest and 
shell a bushel of corn ; it now requires less than forty min- 
utes. The greater part of this saving has come through the 
use of improved farm machinery drawn by horses or 
mules. 

Where the peasants of European countries use shovels, 
hoes, scythes or other primitive implements, we employ 
gang-plows, disk harrows, auto trucks and self-binders. The 
great saving in human energy and time growing out of 
this difference is seen when it is remembered that one horse 
hitched to modern machinery can do the work of at least 
ten men with hand tools. Many an American boy with his 
four-horse team is therefore accomplishing the labor of 
forty European peasants with their hand work and poor 
implements. 

The animals used for work. — Among the various ani- 
mals that men have trained to work for them are horses, 
cattle, mules, buffalo, reindeer, camels, dogs, and even 
sheep, goats and elephants. No animals, except horses, 
mules and cattle, have ever been extensively used for farm 
work in this country. The use of oxen for work has now 
been almost wholly discontinued. 

During recent years, horses and mules have found a com- 
petitor in the automobile and the traction-engine. Thousands 
of farmers now own their cars, and the gasoline tractor is 



516 AGRICULTURE AND 

a common sight on many of the larger western farms. In 
spite of these facts, however, the number of horses and 
mules on our farms is constantly increasing, and the mar- 
ket for them is growing better and more uniform. The 
price of work animals is considerably higher than it was 
when automobiles and traction-engines began to come into 
use. Horses will always have an important place in the 
economy of the farm. 

Animals That Supply Food ' 

Meat and other animal products form a very important 
part of our food supply. Even vegetarians, who are op- 
posed to the eating of flesh, depend largely on such foods 
as butter, eggs and milk. 

Meat as food. — A great proportion of all our farm 
crops goes to the feeding of meat proaucing animals. The 
most progressive nations of the world are those that in ad- 
dition to fruit and vegetables for the diet make much 
use of their domestic animals in supplying food prod- 
ucts. Meat is a more expensive food than grains, fruits and 
vegetables, and people of the poorer classes can not afford 
to eat it. Millions of those living in oriental countries sel- 
dom taste meat in any form. Lack of nutrition and a bal- 
anced ration is shown in absence of ambition and enter- 
prise. 

According to careful estimates the food supply in 
American homes is divided among the different foods in 
approximately the following proportions (Farmers' Bulletin 
391): 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 517 

Meats and poultry 16% 

Dairy products ^ 18% 

Cereals and their products 31% 

Vegetables and fruits 25% 

All other foods 10% 

It is therefore seen that we derive more than one-third 
of all our food in this country from animals, either by con- 
suming their flesh or other products from them, such as 
milk, butter, cheese, etc. 

Animals used for meat. — The animals whose flesh is 
chiefly used for food are cattle, hogs, poultry and sheep. So 
great has the industry of preparing their flesh for food be- 
come, that many cities have great stock-yards and slaugh- 
ter-houses, where hundreds of thousands of animals are 
killed every year. Cold storage vaults are provided in which 
meats can be kept at a temperature below freezing for 
months at a time. Aluch of the meat that is now used on 
the farms is first shipped to the city packing houses for 
slaughter, and then brought back by retail dea;lers as 
needed, in the form of bacon, ham, canned or dried beef, 
or as fresh meats shipped in refrigerator cars. Many small 
towns also have their local slaughter-houses, where animals 
purchased from the farms are killed for home consumption. 

Other food products from animals. — The other food 
products from animal life, such as milk, butter, eggs and 
cheese, are even more important. Milk and eggs contain 
more of the different food elements needed by the human 
body than any other foods ; and butter is as necessary as 
meat. 

The dairy and poultry industries are therefore among the 



518 AGRICULTURE AND 

most important enterprises connected with agriculture. Milk 
and butter are shipped to the cities in refrigerator cars or 
special trains. Hundreds of creameries are operated to save 
time for the farmer and insure him greater profit. Alany train 
loads of eggs and butter are collected during the summer 




Making liogs of tbemsclves. 

months and put in cold storage and kept for the winter 
supply. 

Other Animal Products 

The farm animals are useful in other ways than doing 
work and providing food for man. Many practical neces- 
sities are supplied by them. 

Leather, — The skins of all the common farm animals 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 519 

are saved for leather. Cattle, horses, sheep and even pigs, 

contribute to the making of our shoes, gloves, mittens, har- 
nesses, saddles, cushions and many other articles in com- 
mon use. 

Wool. — Sheep furnish one of the most valuable cloth- 
ing materials known. Alany sheep ranches are maintained 
chiefly for the fleeces, mutton being of secondary consid- 
eration. More than thirty-eight million sheep annually give 
up their wool in the United States for the making of cloth- 
ing and other articles for the household. 

Other products. — We owe many other articles of 
common use to some form of animal product. Our brushes 
are made from bristles. Buttons are cut from bone. Gelatin 
and glue are both animal products. Many soaps are made 
from animal parts not suitable for meat. Blood and bone 
are used for fertilizers. So completely are all parts of 
slaughtered animals saved for some useful purpose that 
it is said nothing is lost of the pig when it is killed, except 
the "squeal." 

It is estimated that the value for fertilizing purposes of 
the manure of all farm products in the United States, if 
properly saved and applied to the soil, would annually reach 
the stupendous amount of more than two billion dollars. 



520 AGRICULTURE AND 

CHAPTER XXXIII 
CATTLE 

CATTLE range second only to horses in market value in 
the LTnited States. Our farms support some twenty- 
two million dairy cows, or one to approximately every four 
people. In addition, there are about thirty-seven million 
other cattle, chiefly calves and beef stock. The value of 
each of these two great groups is about the same, nearly a 
billion dollars, or almost two billion dollars for the whole. 

Dairy Cattle 

Dairying is one of the leading American industries. 
Each of six states, Wisconsin, New York, Iowa, Minnesota, 
Illinois and Texas, has more than a million dairy cows, and 
four other states, Pennsylvania, Ohio, ]\Iichigan and Mis- 
souri, have more than three-quarters of a million each. 
These ten states supply fifty-three per cent, of all our dairy 
products. 

In deciding whether dairying will pay as a principal 
farm project, each farmer must take a number of conditions 
into accourtf. The labor required for handling dairy cows 
is considerably greater than that demanded for producing 
beef, mutton or pork. Milking when done by hand is hard 
work and requires time and patience as does the handling 
of the milk, cream and butter. The availability of markets 
for milk, cream or for butter and cheese products must also 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 521 

be taken into account. The same amount of feed will pro- 
duce greater profits with a dairy herd than with beef stock. 
The farmer's problem is therefore to decide the proper 
balance between his labor, market conditions and the 
amount of feed available for his herd. 

Profitable and unprofitable cows. — Whether a dairy 
herd yields a profit or a loss depends first of all on the milk 
and butter-fat producing capacities of the individual cows. 
A poor cow may require as much feed as a good one, and 
demands as much labor and attention. 

All cows, whether good or poor, must of necessity re- 
quire a certain proportion of a full ration for the up-keep 
of the bodily functions. A first-class dairy cow will demand 
approximately half of a full ration for bodily maintenance 
and will be able to put the remaining fifty per cent, into 
milk production. A poor dairy cow, after using the half of 
her ration for bodily maintenance, will have a tendency to 
put a part of the remaining half into body fat in place of 
into milk. Of course all surplus fat produced at the ex- 
pense of milk is so much sheer waste in the dairy. The 
ideal arrangement would be to find dairy cows whose 
nutritive processes are so arranged that all food material 
above that required for good bodily up-keep should go to the 
production of milk. The best dairy cow, therefore, never 
fattens while milking, but she nevertheless utilizes a suffi- 
cient proportion of her food to keep the body organism 
strong, healthy and vigorous. 

It has been estimated that one-third of the dairy cows 
in the United States are kept at an actual loss. Twice 
every day, therefore, there are milked some seven million 



522 AGRICULTURE AND 

cows, mere "boarders," that not only return no profit, but 
use up the profit from good cows. 

Profit differences in herds. — It is estimated that the 
skim-milk, calf and manure from a dairy cow are worth 
the cost of caring for her. This leaves the milk to bal- 
ance against the value of the feed. The difference 
between the best and the poorest cow in almost any herd 
is surprising. This difference is well shown in the fol- 
lowing records of cows for one year in Illinois herds : 
(Bui. 111. Agric. Exp. Sta.) 

Herd No. 1 



No. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Per cent. 






cow 


milk 


fat 


fat 


Profit 


Loss 


1 


1204 


49 


4.07 





$27.52 


2 


1236 


50 


4.05 





27.20 


3 


2944 


88 


2.99 





15.17 


4 


2597 


91 


3.50 





15.38 


5 


2548 


98 


3.85 





13.18 


6 


2475 


99 


4.00 





13.18 


7 


2569 


105 


4.09 





10.98 


8 


3164 


117 


3.70 





8.37 


9 


2829 


123 


4.34 





8.67 


10 


3380 


149 


4.41 





1.58 


11 


4582 


158 


3.45 


$1.41 





12 


4146 


174 


4.20 


3.41 





13 


4103 


177 


4.31 


5.41 





14 


4993 


191 


3.82 


8.40 





15 


4435 


200 


4.51 


10.21 







$28.84 


$141.23 












28.84 


Bal 


ance of loss 
3147 








.-_ $112.39 


Av. 


124 


3.94 





$ 7.49 


Diffei 


'ence in profit between 


best and 


poorest ( 


:ow, ^7.73 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 523 

This was an exceptionally poor herd, so poor that it 
lost the owner $112.39 for the year — an average loss of 
$7.49 per cow. Either of the two poorest cows lost almost 
as much as the best five made their owner. Even the best 
cow of this herd is poor enough, but there is a difference 
of ^37.73 in the year's record between the best and the 
poorest. 

Herd No. 2 



No. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Per cent. 






cow 


milk 


fat 


fat 


Profit 


Loss 


1 


2496 


102 


4.09 




$13.18 


2 


3158 


107 


3.39 




10.57 


3 


3369 


110 


3.27 




10.57 


4 


4178 


121 


2.90 




7.59 


5 


3389 


123 


3.63 




8.18 


6 


3349 


124 


3.70 




8.37 


7 


3036 


124 


4.08 




8.57 


8 


3415 


125 


3.66 




5.98 


9 


3947 


128 


3.24 




5.59 


10 


3438 


132 


3.84 




5.98 


11 


3263 


133 


4.08 




6.17 


12 


3435 


134 


3.90 




5.98 


13 


3547 


145 


4.09 




1.58 


14 


3686 


149 


4.04 




1.38 


15 


2429 


151 


6.22 




2.18 


16 


3922 


157 


4.00 


$ 1.01 




17 


3612 


158 


4.37 


.62 




18 


4185 


158 


3.78 


1.21 




19 


4296 


161 


3.75 


1.21 




20 


4328 


168 


3.88 


3.41 




21 


4131 


170 


4.12 


3.41 




22 


4290 


175 


4.08 


5.61 




23 


4528 


181 


4.00 


5.81 




24 


4458 


182 


4.08 


5.81 




25 


5014 


184 


3.67 


6.20 





524 AGRICULTURE AND 



No. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Per cent. 






cow 


milk 


fat 


fat 


Profit 


Loss 


26 


5191 


195 


3.76 


10.87 




27 


5403 


196 


3.63 


11.13 




28 


5673 


200 


3.53 


11.40 




29 


5333 


211 


3.96 


13.07 




30 


5215 


213 


4.08 


13.07 




31 


5820 


218 


3.75 


15.80 




32 


5953 


221 


3.71 


16.06 




33 


5822 


227 


3.90 


18.00 




34 


6606 


254 


3.84 


22.96 












$166.66 


$101.87 










101.87 




Balance 


of profit- 






._$ 64.79 





Av. 4233 163 3.85 $ 1.91 

Difference in profit between best and poorest cow, $36.14. 

Herd No. 2 was composed largely of grade cows but 
contained six animals which had a preponderance of dairy- 
blood. Probably the most striking fact shown in the table 
is that the entire herd of thirty-four cows yielded an annual 
profit of only sixty-five dollars, or an average of less than 
two dollars per cow. It is also to be noted that the owner 
had fifteen cows which were losing him money and that his 
loss from this source was more than one hundred dollars. 
Had he disposed of these fifteen cows he would have made 
one hundred sixty-six dollars from the remaining nineteen 
in place of the sixty-five dollars which he made from the 
entire herd. This would have saved him the milking of 
fifteen cows which were kept at a burden and loss of both 
labor and feed. With another form of comparison, he 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



525 



would have made more from the best four cows than he 
made from the entire herd, so great was the difference in 
earning power of the different animals. It is the discovery 
of just such differences as these in a dairy herd and prompt 
action with reference to the disposal of poor stock that 
determines the profit the dairyman is to receive from his 
investment and labor. 

Herd No. 3 



No. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Per cent. 






cow 


milk 


fat 


fat 


Profit 


Loss 


1 


6921 


220 


3.18 


$ 16.65 




2 


53S0 


223 


4.14 


15.53 




3 


5432 


223 


4.10 


15.53 




4 


6652 


226 


3.40 


18.70 




5 


7461 


227 


3.04 


19.15 




6 


7272 


235 


3.23 


19.00 




7 


6664 


237 


3.55 


20.90 




8 


7027 


240 


3.41 


21.05 




9 


6512 


263 


4.04 


25.16 




10 


8087 


264 


3.26 


26.04 




11 


7449 


278 


3.73 


30.15 




12 


7051 


289 


4.09 


32.05 




Balance 


of profit — 






._$259.91 




Av. 


6826 


244 


3.57 


$ 21.66 





Difference in profit between best and poorest cow, $16.52. 

The difference between keeping herds all of which yield 
a fair profit, and herds a considerable portion of which are 
kept at a loss, is shown in the case of Herd No. 3. In this 
instance with a herd of twelve cows, the poorest of which 
made a profit of more than fifteen dollars, there is an 



526 AGRICULTURE AND 

aggregate profit of about two hundred and sixty dollars, 
as against the sixty-five dollars coining from thirty-four 
cows of Herd No. 2. Herd No. 3 contains no remarkably 
profitable cows, the best returning but thirty-two dollars. 
But the fact that no individuals were kept at a loss leaves 
the aggregate profit at a reasonable figure. With more 
herds like No. 3, even if these herds are relatively small, 
the dairy business will return considerably larger profits 
than are now received and dairy farmers will be much 
more contented with their reduced labor and larger income. 

Selecting Dairy Cozvs According to Type 

Dairy cows may be selected by two dififerent methods: 
(1) keeping a record of the amount of milk produced, with 
the percentage of butter-fat it contains; and (2) judging 
whether the cow conforms to the physical type knovv^n as 
good dairy stock. The first of these is the only absolutely 
sure method. The second is also of great value, for cows 
are often bought without any possibility of learning their 
milk record. Every farmer should, therefore, know the 
points of a good dairy cow. 

The dairy type of cow. — Dairy cattle and beef cattle 
present two rather distinct types as to form, or build, and 
appearance. In general, the frame of the beef animal is 
the shape capable of taking on the largest amount of flesh, 
while that of the dairy cow is adapted to the production 
of milk. Both types must be good eaters, for only the 
food above the amount required for maintaining the body 
can go to the production of either beef or milk. 



THE FARMING BUSIITESS 527 

The good dairy cow is spare of flesh, for the surplus 
food must be turned into milk instead of fat. She appears 
somewhat loose-jointed, but the muscles are well developed. 
The coat is smooth and soft, the eyes are bright, and the dis- 
position is wide-awake and active. The jaw is strong, the 
stomach and other organs of digestion are capacious. The 
circulatory system needs size and strength, as it must supply 
abundance of material for the production of milk. The 
udder is well shaped and large. 

Shape of the dairy cow. — The typical dairy cow has 
what is called a zvcdge conformation, especially if viewed 
from front to rear; that is, the body outline as a whole, 
whether viewed from side, top, or front, roughly resembles 
a wedge. 

The side wedge has its base in a line formed by the depth 
of the body through the hips to the lower extremity of the 
udder, with the point of the wedge at the head. The top 
wedge has its base in a line across the width of the hips, 
and its point at the withers. The fj'ont wedge has its base 
in a line across the floor of the chest, and its point at the 
top of the withers. 

It is readily seen that the shape given the body by these 
three wedge conformations allows a generous amount of 
room for the digestive and circulatory systems and the 
udder. This form does not, however, give a frame capable 
of taking on a large amount of flesh, and is therefore not 
adapted to beef cattle. 

Various score-cards are in use for the judging of dairy 
cows. Judging by use of the score-card trains one in accu- 



528 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Showing wedge formation of dairy cow. 

ABC. Wedge shape looking along the back. 
A D E. Rear view looking from main body to shoulder ridge. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 529 

rate observation and judgment, and shows the relative value 
of the different points. 

The Score-Card for Judging Dairy Cows 

Scale of Points. Standard 

HEAD— 8 Points 

1. Muzzle, broad 1 

2. Jaw, strong, firmly joined 1 

3. Face, medium length, clean 1 

4. Forehead, broad between eye dishing 1 

5. Eyes, large, full, mild and bright 2 

6. Ears, medium size, fine texture, secretions oily 

and abundant, yellow color 2 

FOREQUARTERS— 10 Points 

7. Throat, clean 1 

8. Neck, long, spare, smoothly joined to shoulders, 

free from dewlap 2 

9. Withers, narrow, sharp 3 

10. Shoulders, sloping, smooth; brisket, light 3 

11. Fore legs, straight, clean, well set under body — 1 

BODY— 25 Points 

12. Crops, free from fleshiness 1 

13. Chest, deep, roomy; floor broad • 6 

14. Back, straight, strong; vertebrce open 3 

15. Ribs, long, deep and well sprung 3 

16. Barrel, deep, long, capacious 10 

17. Loin, broad, strong . 2 

HINDQUARTERS— 12 Points 

18. Hips, prominent, wide apart I 

19. Rump, long, level, not sloping 4 

20. Pin bones, wide apart 1 

21. Tail, neatly set on, long, tapering 1 

22. Thighs, spare, not fleshy 3 

23. Hind legs, well apart, giving ample room for 

udder 2 



530 AGRICULTURE AND 

MAMMARY DEVELOPMENT— 30 Points 

24. Udder, large, very flexible, attached high behind 

carrying well forward; quarters even IS 

25. Teats, wide apart, uniformly placed, convenient 

size 5 

26. Milk veins, large, tortuous, extending well for- 

ward 4 

n. Milk wells, large 6 

GENERAL APPEARANCE— 15 Points 

28. Disposition, quiet, gentle 2 

29. Health, thrifty, vigorous 3 

30. Quality, free from coarseness throughout; skin 

soft, pliable; secretions abundant; hair fine 4 

31. Temperament, inherent tendency to dairy per- 

formance ^ 6 

Total 100 

Selecting the Dairy Cozv by Milk Tests 

The profit from a dairy cow depends on two factors : 
(1) the amount of milk produced, and (2) the percentage 
of butter-fat in the milk. The first of these questions can 
be determined by weighing the milk ; the second, by testing 
the milk with the Babcock milk test. ^ 

Testing the milk of different cows. — In order to de- 
termine the record of each cow of the herd, the milk must 
be weighed and tested regularly throughout the season. The 
testing and weighing may be done daily, though this fre- 
quent a test is hardly necessary for practical fann purposes. 
A plan followed by many farmers is to zveigh the milk daily, 
and test the hiitter-fat of both night's milk and morning's 
milk once a month. 

Making the Babcock test for butter-fat. — It Is not 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



531 



the quantity of milk alone that determines the value of a 
cow. Practically all milk and cream now sold from the 
farm for butter-making purposes are paid for, not by weight 
or bulk, but by the amount of butter-fat they contain. The 
purpose of the Babcock test is to measure the percentage 




Marzlo 


8 


Neck 


15. 


Bibs 


'..2. 


Thifha 


. Jaw 


9 


Withers 


16! 


Baxrel 


23. 


Hind logs 


raoB 


10 


SliouWerc 


17. 


Z/>ln 


C4. 


UddBT 


Torehosd 


11 


Fore legs 


18. 


HipB 


25. 


TaatB 


Byes 


12 


Crops 


19. 


Romp 
Pin bonn 


26. 


Mlllc Tslns 


Ears 


13 


Chest 


20. 


;?, 


MUS weaii! 


Throat 


14 


Back 


n 


Tail 







Parts of a dairy cow. 
of butter-fat in milk. Every dairy farm should regularly 
use this test. 

The materials for making the Babcock test are (1) a 
hand-power centrifugal tester; (2) two or more milk test- 
bottles ; (3) a pipette to measure the milk ; (4) a small glass 
measure for acid; (5) sulphuric acid with specific gravity of 
1.82; (6) hot water. The necessary apparatus can be 
bought for about five dollars, though a fuller equipment 



532 AGRICULTURE AND 

may cost as much as twenty dollars. Full directions for 
making the test come with each set of apparatus. 

Steps in the Babcock test. — The Babcock test is not 
difficult to make, nor does it require much time. Yet great 
care must be taken if the results are to be trustworthy. The 
following are the steps required in making the test : 

1. Stir the milk thoroughly before taking the sample. 

2. Fill the pipette to the height shown by the mark. 

3. Empty the pipette into the test-bottle, blowing to drive 
all the milk out. 

4. Fill the acid measure to the mark shown with sulphuric 
acid, and add to the test-bottle. 

5. Shake the bottle to mix the milk and acid thoroughly. 

6. Place the bottles in the machine, and whirl five minutes. 

7. Add hot water to each bottle until filled to bottom of 
neck, and whirl one minute. 

8. Add more hot water to bring the top of the fat nearly 
to the top of the marks on the neck of the bottle, and whirl 
one minute. 

9. Read the per cent, of fat in the neck of the bottle; this 
indicates the quality of the milk. 

10. Empty the test bottles and wash. 

The percentage of butter-fat ought to be not less than 
three and five-tenths, and should range up to five or occa- 
sionally even six in the milk of the better cows. 

Dairy Breeds 

Dairymen are not agreed as to the type of cow that is 
most profitable. Some prefer what they call a "general- 
purpose cow," combining as far as possible the qualities of 
both dairy and beef breeds. Such animals are usually of 
large frame, take on flesh readily, and so are easily con- 
verted into beef when this is more profitable than milking. 
Other dairymen select the pure dairy breeds, preferring to 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 533 

get their profit out of the milk produced, rather than from 
the beef. Which is the better plan will depend on local 
conditions and demands. 

Choosing the dairy breed. — It is impossible to select 
any one breed of dairy cattle as the best under all condi- 
tions. Some are noted for producing large quantities of 
milk, and others for producing milk rich in butter-fat. Some 
do best when allowed a wide range for foraging, and others 
when they are kept close and fed high. Some give a large 
flow of milk for a short season, and others a smaller flow 
for a longer time. The dairyman should decide what par- 
ticular qualities are best adapted to his needs, and then 
select the breed that will meet these needs. 

Leading dairy breeds. — Among the best-known 
breeds of dairy cattle are the Holstein, or Holstein-Friesian, 
as they are officially named ; the Jersey ; the Guernsey ; and 
the Ayrshire. The Shorthorns are also a favorite class, 
combining in large degree both dairy and beef qualities. 
Records kept for one year in various experiment stations of 
the United States Department of Agriculture show the fol- 
lowing average ratings as milk producers of the first four 
of these breeds in the station herds : 

Pounds Per cent. Pounds Per cent. 
Breed of milk of fat of fat total solids 

Holstein 8699 

Jersey 5508 

Guernsey 5509 

Ayrshire 6533 

Average 6562.25 4^355 277.25 13.5925 



3.45 


300 


12.99 


5.14 


283 


14.2 


4.98 


274 


14.2 


3.85 


252 


12.98 



534 



AGRICULTURE AND 



The Holstcin cattle have been known, as a dairy breed 
for more than two thousand years. Some three hundred 
years B. C. a people known as the Friesians, coming from 
somewhere on the shores of the Baltic, settled in the Rhine 
Valley in Germany, bringing with them their white coated 
cattle. Within the next century the Batavians entered this 




"Banastine Belle do Kol," a cliampiou Iloli>teiu cow vvitli a 
record of 1,058.34 pounds of butter-fat iu 365 days. 

same territory bringing with them herds of black cattle. 
The combination of these two herds produced the black 
and white cattle now known as the Holstein-Friesian. 
They were first brought to the United States about the 
middle of the last century and have since that time become 
one of the foremost dairy breeds. The Holsteins are noted 
for their marvelous milk production, great food and diges- 
tive capacity and strong constitutions. Their milk, however, 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 535 

is not so rich in butter-fat as that of the Jersey or Guernsey. 
The Holsteins are larger than any of the other dairy breeds. 
In point of numbers they come next after the Jersey in the 
United States. 

The Jersey cattle are famous the world over for their 
abundant and rich milk production. They were, in fact, the 
first of the dairy breeds to attract public attention for dairy 
efficiency in this country. Among the strongest points are 
the following: They convert a very large proportion of the 
food consumed into milk, using almost none for the produc- 
tion of unnecessary fat ; they give milk of the richest quality, 
commonly showing an unusually high percentage of butter 
fat; they mature at an early age and hence can early be 
used for milk or breeding purposes, thus avoiding the neces- 
sity of long delays before they come into profitable useful- 
ness. The Jerseys originated on the Island of Jersey, whose 
people 'are among the most prosperous and contented of 
the United Kingdom. The chief support of these Islanders 
is found in their herds of Jersey cows and the breed is kept 
pure by the strictest of laws against the importation of for- 
eign animals. 

The Guernseys are another of the dairy breeds originat- 
ing among the islands of the English Channel. This 
famous breed of cattle came from the Guernsey Island 
where they probably had a common origin with the Jerseys. 
The two breeds are now entirely independent, however, 
although they resemble each other in general appearance 
and characteristics. The Guernseys are somewhat larger 
than Jerseys and carry more flesh. Next to the Jersey, the 



536 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Guernsey produces the richest milk knowfi, and in quantity 
the Guernsey often excels even the Jersey. In early days 
the Jerseys and Guernseys were in this country classed to- 
gether under the general name of Alderney, but were later 
recognized as separate breeds. 




The 1914 dairy champiou of the T'niled .stales. "May Ililuia," 
a Guernsey. Her record for 365 days was 19,639.5 pounds of 
milk and 1,059.59 pounds of butter-fat. 



Not only are Guernseys prolific milk producers, but their 
gentle disposition makes them a favorite family cow. They 
are lighter feeders than the Holstein but devote a large 
proportion of their ration to the production of milk. The 
yielding of more than fifteen thousand pounds of milk in a 
year is not an unusual performance for many Guernsey 
cows. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 537 

The Ayrshires are a Scotch breed, originating in the 
mountainous parts of Scotland, later brought to the state 
of New York in the early part o^ the last century. Like 
other famous dairy breeds, the Ayrshires are noted for their 
economy in feeding and the large amount of milk produced 
in proportion to the feed consumed. Ayrshires are of a less 
quiet disposition than the other dairy breeds and somewhat 
inclined to be quarrelsoine. Many stock raisers believe 
that the Ayrshire breed, will thrive under less favorable 
conditions than either the Jerseys or Guernseys. This 
breed has become very popular in America within the last 
few years. 

Feeding Dairy Cows 

Just as the soil must contain the food elements needed 
in the growth of the plant, so the dairy cow's rations must 
contain the elements required to produce milk and upbuild 
the body. If proper food is not supplied, either the amount 
of milk or its quality will be sure to sufifer. Only three 
different food elements, or nutrients, are likely to run short 
in the ordinary rations of the cow; these are (1) protein, 
(2) carbohydrate, and (3) fat. 

Protein. — Protein is required in the animal body for 
the making of all muscular parts, blood and connective 
tissue. It supplies nearly one-third of the solid part of milk, 
going to form the curd and albumen. 

It is fortunate that the nitrogenous plants so valuable 
in building up the soil are also rich in protein. Alfalfa, 
clover, cow-peas, soy-beans, the vetches and other legumes 
are therefore desirable as a part of the dairy ration. Bran, 



538 AGRICULTURE AND 

linseed meal, cottonseed-meal, gluten feed and oats are also 
rich in protein. Protein should make up approximately one- 
sixth of the cow's ration during the milking season; no 
other food can take its place. It is the most expensive part 
of the ration, and should be secured as far as possible from 
home-grown legumes. 

Carbohydrates. — The carbohydrates are necessary to 
supply energy, heat and fat for the animal body, and sugar 
and fat in the milk. All the common grains are rich in 
carbohydrates, which are the cheapest nutrient of the cow's 
rations. Among the more common carbohydrate feeds are 
corn, com silage, corn stover, oat straw, millet hay, sugar 
beets and dried beet pulp. In some cases sugar beet feeds 
have not proved satisfactory owing to their temporary efifect 
upon quality of the milk. Timothy hay should not form 
a part of the dairy ration, as it has few of the elements re- 
quired in producing milk. 

Fat. — Fat is used for practically the same purposes 
as the carbohydrates in maintaining the body and produc- 
ing milk. It is contained in some degree In all feeds, 
though in smaller quantities than carbohydrates, and in 
more concentrated form. It has been found that one pound 
of fat will serve the same purpose in the dairy ration as 
two and one-fourth pounds of carbohydrates. 

The balanced ration. — By a balanced ration is meant 
a ration which contains the right digestible proportion of 
each kind of nutrient demanded by the animal. The term 
nutritive ratio is used when speaking of the relation of pro- 
tein to carbohvdrate and fat in the ration. The nutritive 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 539 

ratio of the dairy ration is 1:6; this is to say, one part of 
digestible protein to six parts of carbohydrates and fat com- 
bined. The following tables show several balanced and 
economical rations for dairy cows:* 

Ration I Ration II 



Corn silage 30 pounds Sugar beets 25 pounds 

Cow-pea hay 10 " Alfalfa hay 10 " 

Corn stover 2 " Corn stover 5 " 

Corn 6 " Corn 5 " 

Cottonseed-meal 1.5 " Dried brewers' 

grains 5 " 

Ration III Ration IV 



Clover hay 18 pounds Corn silage 30 pounds 

Corn 5 " Canadian pea and 

Wheat bran or oat hay 10 " 

oats 6 " Oats 5 

Cottonseed-meal 1 " Gluten feed 4 " 

It must be remembered that, no matter what the feeds 
used to supply the protein, carbohydrate and fat, there must 
also be a certain amount of roughage in the ration. All 
browsing or grazing animals require bulky feed, and can not 
thrive on concentrated material alone. 

Producing Clean Milk 

Milk is perfectly clean as it comes from the cow. It is 
easily tainted, however, either by filth that may fall into 
the pail during the milking, or from dirty utensils. Dirty 
milk makes dissatisfied customers, endangers the health of 
users, especially children, hastens souring, makes a lower 
grade of butter, and indicates shiftlessness and low stand- 
ards of dairying. 

* (Purdue Ext. Bui No. 21.) 



540 



AGRICULTURE AND 



The cow barn. — The cow barn should be constructed 
for the comfort, cleanHness and hygiene of its occupants. 
It should be well ventilated and have plenty of light. The 
floor should be of some hard material, preferably cement, 
and water-tight. The stalls should be the right length for 
the cows, and have a shallow gutter at the rear with slope 
enough toward one end to permit drainage. Instead of a 




A clean dairy barn. 

feed manger in front, there should be a liquid-tight trough, 
also with a slight slope, that it may be washed out. All 
floors should be kept thoroughly washed by means of a 
hose and stiflf brushes. 

Cleanliness in milking. — Before the milking is begun, 
both the cow and the milker should be clean. If the cow 
is dusty, the dust should be well brushed out. The udder 
should be wiped clean, washed, or sponged ofif, as may be 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 541 

required. The milker's hands should be freshly cleansed, as 
it is almost impossible to keep the milk from touching 
them. 

Special suits should be kept for milking, and should be 
frequently washed. The practise of putting on old, greasy 
and unwashed clothes, simply to save soiling other garments 
while milking, is too filthy to be permitted in any dairy. 
All utensils should be kept in a perfectly clean place, and 
well scalded once each day. 

A careful analysis of the dirt contained in milk shows 
about nine-tenths of it to be cow manure. The other tenth 
is hair from the cow, dirt from the cow or the milker, par- 
ticles of the feed used, and disease germs from the cow or 
hands of the milker. No dairyman should ask a consumer 
to eat such an array of filth as this. 

Milking machines. — Successful mechanical milkers of 
various types are now in common use. Each individual 
farmer must decide with reference to his entire set of farm 
enterprises, including the cost of labor, whether it will pay 
to install a mechanical milker for his herd. Where an 
electric current is available for power very excellent types 
of milkers can be obtained, each section of which will milk 
several cows at a time, one man being able to take care of 
the milking of four cows at once. Gasoline or other power 
will accomplish the same results if carefully adjusted to 
the work in hand. 

Straining the milk. — Much of the dirt that gets into 
the milk can not be strained out, since it fully dissolves and 
will pass through the strainer as easily as the milk itself. 



542 AGRICULTURE AND 

A good strainer will, however, if used while milking or im- 
mediately afterward, remove a considerable portion of 
the insoluble matter. 

A wire mesh strainer should never be used. The strainer 
should be cone-shaped, with gauze and absorbent cotton 
forming the outlet. One thickness of the cotton is placed 
between four thicknesses of gauze, two on each side, and 
held in place by a ring which fits over the edges and at- 
taches it to the bottom of the receptacle. The cotton should 
be destroyed after each straining, and never used a second 
time. The additional expense for this type of strainer is 
slight, and should keep no progressive dairyman from us- 
ing it. 

Cooling the milk. — After cleanliness, the next essen- 
tial to good care of milk is quick cooling. So important 
is quick cooling to prevent souring of milk and keep it in 
good condition that a higher price is often paid for milk 
properly cooled than for uncooled milk. 

For the best results some form of cooling apparatus is 
necessary. Various machines for this purpose can be had 
for from ten to twenty-five dollars. An average of about 
five cents' worth of ice is required for each hundred pounds 
of milk during the warm months. Milk should be cooled 
down to forty-five degrees in a few minutes of time. 

Standard for Judging Butter 
In judging butter, the different characteristics are given 
different values according to their relative importance. 
Following is given a standard used commercially and based 
upon one hundred per cent, grade as perfect : 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 543 

Score 

Flavor 45 

Body 25 

Color IS 

Salt 10 

Style 5 

Total, (perfect score) 100 

Flavor. — As shown in the score above, flavor is the 
most important characteristic. Good butter should possess 
a clean, mild, rich, creamy flavor, and should have a delicate, 
mild, pleasant aroma. Flat flavor is noticeable in butter 
made from unripened cream. Rancid flavor is applied to 
butter which has a strong flavor, and develops in butter 
which has been standing a long time. Cheesy flavor is 
common to butter which has little or no salt. Weedy flavors 
are due to the condition of the milk before churned and are 
caused by the cows pasturing where weeds are growing, 
such as wild onions, garlic, etc. Acid flavor is due to im- 
proper ripening of the cream. 

Body. — Next in importance to flavor is body. Butter 
that is greasy, tallowy, spongy, or sticky is undesirable. 
The body must be firm and uniform. 

Color. — The color should be bright and even, not 
streaky or mottled. A light ripened out straw color is the 
one most desired. 

Salt. — The amount of salt depends upon what the 
market wants. The principal thing is to have the salt 
thoroughly dissolved and evenly distributed. Medium salt- 
ing is most desired. 



544 AGRICULTURE AND 

Style. — By style is meant the appearance of the butter 
and package. It should be clean, neat and of pleasing form. 

Beef Breeds 

Larger profit can be secured from dairy than from beef 
cattle with the same amount of feed, but dairy animals re- 
quire a much greater amount of labor and a more costly 
equipment. The work necessary to care for fifteen or 
twenty dairy cows will be sufficient to tend two hundred 
beef animals. Properly managed, the raising and feeding 
of cattle for beef from home-grown feed can be made highly 
profitable. 

The beef-producing type. — Beef and dairy cattle 
dififer widely in their type. For the production of beef, 
the animal must be able to use a large proportion of its 
food in the putting on of flesh ; it must also have a form 
capable of holding a large amount of muscle and fat. 

The beef animal should have a conformation that (1) 
favors the production and carrying of flesh; (2) supplies 
the best proportion of good cuts of meat on the block; (3) 
indicates good constitution and feeding capacity. 

The form of beef animals. — Instead of the wedge con- 
formation of the dairy cow, beef cattle should in their shape 
present a series of rectangles; that is, they should be 
"block." The body is reasonably long, and deep, with 
short sturdy legs. The whole form presents a plump full- 
shaped appearance. The back is broad and straight, with 
ribs well arched to give breadth to the body. The quarters 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 545 

are well filled and thick. The skin is pliable, rather thick, 
and the coat smooth and glossy. 

In selecting feeders or judging beef stock, there is per- 
haps no point more important than the back of the animal. 
A wide, level, strong back with well arched ribs is essential. 
The girth should be large, for this means not only room for 
meat, but also space for vital organs to insure a better 
constitution. 

A good beef animal usually carries a wide head and is 
a good feeder. The wide head commonly goes with width 
of body across the back, which gives room for a large 
quantity of high priced meat. The eye should be promi- 
nent, clear and quiet, showing the good disposition so neces- 
sary in animals that are required to take on flesh. The 
chest should be of great depth as well as girth, indicating 
large lung capacity and adding to the meat area of the ani- 
mal. Reasonably broad shoulders are desirable but extreme 
width at this point is not to be sought as it usually stands 
for coarseness and unduly prominent hip points. The 
coupling or the distance between the last rib and the hip 
point should be short, as great distance in this measure 
indicates looseness of build with probable inability to take 
on flesh. The rump should be long, wide and level, the 
flank full and low. Shortness of legs is a prime point in 
the selection of beef stock for short legs decrease the 
amount of waste and increase the killing percentage of beef. 
Short legged animals also have less tendency unnecessarily 
to travel about and thus save their energy for the production 



546 AGRICULTURE AND 

of flesh and fat. The bones of a good beef anhnal are 
strong without coarseness. 

Wholesale Cuts on the Beef Carcass 







CUTS 


OF 


BEEF 








Per cent. 


of 


Value per 


Per cent, of value 




Name 


carcass 




pound* 


of carcass 


1. 


Round 


23 




9.5 cts. 


23.18 


2 


Loin 


17 




14.5 cts. 


26.15 


3. 


Flank 


4 




7 cts. 


2.97 


4. 


Rib 


9 




12.5 cts. 


11.93 


5-6. 


Plate 


13 




7 cts. 


9.65 


7. 


Chuck 


26 




7.7 cts. 


21.24 


8. 


Shank 


4 




5.5 cts. 


2.33 


9. 


Suet 


4 




6 cts. 


2.55 



Judging beef cattle with the score-card. — Because of 
the difference in type between dairy and beef cattle, it is 
best to use separate score-cards in judging them. 

Score-Card for Beef Cattle 

Pos- Points 
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE sible Defi- 

Score cient 

Weight, estimated lb., according to age 10 

Form, straight top line and underline; deep, 

broad, low-set; compact, symmetrical 10 

Quality, fine hair; bone firm but strong; skin 
pliable, mellow, even covering of firm flesh; 
especially in region of valuable cuts; ab- 
sence of ties and rolls 10 

Condition, prime, flesh deep; evidence of finish 
especially marked in cod, at tail-head, 
flank, shoulder and throat; absence of ties 
or rolls 10 

*Variablc, of course, with market and location. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



547 



STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE 

Head, clean-cut; symmetrical; quiet expression; 
mouth and nostrils large, clear and placid; 
face short; forehead broad, full; ears me- 
dium size, fine texture, erect 

Neck, thick, short, tapering neatly from shoul- 
der to head; throat clean 

Shoulder vein, full 

Shoulder, well covered with flesh; compact 

Brisket, full, broad but not too prominent; 

breast wide 

Dewlap, skin not loose and drooping 

Chest, deep, wide, full 

Crops, full, thick, broad 

Ribs, long, arched, thickly fleshed 

Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 
Loin, thick, broad; thickness extending well 

forward 

Flank, low and full 

Hooks, smoothly covered; width in proportion 

to other parts but not prominent 

Rump, long, level, wide, and even; tail-head 

smooth, not patchy 

Pin bones, not prominent, width in proportion 

with other parts 

Thighs, full, fleshed well down to hock 

Twist, deep, full; purse full 

Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank fine, 

smooth 

Total 

(Courtesy Kansas Agriculture College) 



Pos- 


Points 


sible 


Defi- 


Score 


cient 



1 
1 

4 

2 
100 



Beef breeds. — Among the chief breeds of beef cattle in 
the United States are Shorthorns, or Durhams, Here fords, 
Aberdeen-Angus and Galloways. Several different breeds 
have also developed a polled, or hornless, type. Except for 



548 AGRICULTURE AND 

the lack of horns, the polled breeds closely resemble the 
parent breed from which they were derived. 

The Shorthorns are the most popular breed of beef 
cattle in the United States as shown both by the fact that 
they outnumber any other breed and by their general dis- 
tribution over all parts of the country. Besides their 
excellent beef qualities they produce a generous amount 
of milk. They have a gentle disposition and have come to 
be called the "farmer's cow." The Shorthorns have been 
found to cross well with other breeds and to be especially 
adapted to building up herds out of the common or scrub 
.stock of the plains or western ranges. The Shorthorns 
mature early and fatten readily. The steers are in demand 
as profitable feeders, although they have not won prizes 
so readily as the Aberdeen-Angus at the Fat Stock Shows. 
The Herefords rank next after the Shorthorns as a 
favorite beef breed and their number is constantly increas- 
ing, especially where cattle must be produced under adverse 
conditions, as on the western ranges. In ability to look out 
for themselves and prosper with rather a scant feed, the 
Herefords are not surpassed by any breed of beef cattle. 
The Hereford cow has been criticized somewhat because of 
scanty milk flow, but enough is usually produced for the 
raising of a good calf. The Herefords mature early and 
fatten readily under feeding conditions. The Hereford and 
Shorthorn breeds weigh practically the same, mature bulls 
ranging from eighteen hundred to twenty-two hundred 
pounds, and good cows from twelve hundred to sixteen 
hundred pounds. The Hereford is red with white mark- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 549 

ings, the white usually being found on the face and head 
from where it extends backward along the top of the neck 
and shoulders and downward over the throat to the bottom 
of the chest. 

The Aberdeen-Angus breed are black in color and have 
no horns. While this is an old breed of cattle, it is only 
within recent years that it has come to be popular in the 




A fine speciment of Angus bull. 

United States. Although they stand next after the Here- 
fords as grazers on scanty pastures, they have not become 
so popular on the western ranges as the former breed, nor 
indeed as the Shorthorns which they far surpass in their 
ability to thrive under adverse conditions. The Aberdeen- 
Angus cattle mature very early and can be readily fattened 
at any age. This latter quality makes them a favorite for 
baby beef production. Because of their excellent build for 



550 AGRICULTURE AND 

the block, their exceptional vigor and early maturity, they 
are the most popular of all breeds as feeders. 

The Galloways are one of the oldest breeds of cattle. 
They are hornless and usually deep black in color, although 
some brown is occasionally shown in their long, curly, silky 
coat. The Galloway breed has unusual power to transmit 
the breed characteristics to offspring from cows of any 
breed. This is shown by the fact that as high as ninety per 
cent, of the calves from various colored cows are black, and 
more than ninety-five per cent, of the offspring from horned 




Cuts of beef, 



cows are polled. The Galloways are somewhat smaller 
than the other beef breeds and rather slower in maturing. 
They are exceedingly good feed rustlers and their heavy 
coat enables them to stand severe weather. For these rea- 
sons they have become popular on many of the ranges of the 
far Northwest and Canada. Because of their smaller size 
and their relative slowness in maturing, it is doubtful 
if this breed will become widely popular in the United 
States except where climatic conditions and the scarcity of 
range grasses require the Galloway characteristics. 

Feeding beef cattle. — Feeding grain and roughage 
to beef cattle is a more profitable way to market crops than 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 551 

to sell them off the farm. In this way the fertility of the 
soil is also conserved, and better crops produced. 

The fattening ration for cattle is slightly different from 
the dairy ration, the nutrient ratio for beef being 1 : 7 as 
against 1 : 6 for milk production. That is to say, that the 
fattening animal should have a balanced ration consisting 
of one part protein food for every seven parts of carbo- 
hydrates and fats. 

Diseases of Cattle 

Tuberculosis is a common disease among cattle. It is 
more common among dairy cattle than beef cattle. This is 
probably because dairy cows are kept to a greater age than 
beef cattle, and are more closely confined In barns. The 
effects of tuberculosis in a dairy herd are (1) lowered milk 
production and final loss of the tuberculous animal by death, 
and (2) danger of giving the disease to people, especially 
children who use the milk. 

Prevalence of tuberculosis in herds. — There is no 
way of telling the exact number of cattle affected by tuber- 
culosis, as comparatively few herds are examined for the 
disease. It is not uncommon to find as high as seventy to 
eighty per cent, of the cows in a herd diseased, some with 
the disease just starting, others with it well along and still 
others in the last stages. Since tuberculosis is contagious, 
it is evident that when it once gets started in a herd it is 
hard to stamp out. 

The tuberculin test. — It is impossible to make certain 
of the presence or absence of tuberculosis in a herd by any 



552 



AGRICULTURE AND 




Showing beef cuts. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 553 

set of symptoms. The only sure way is by the tuberculin 
test. This test is required by law of all dairy herds in many 
of the states. Experts have shown that tuberculin, if 
properly used, will reveal the presence of tuberculosis in at 
least ninety-eight per cent, of the cases. 

Tuberculin is a fluid in which tubercle germs have been 
grown, but from which they have all been removed. This 
fluid is injected with a hypodermic needle under the skin 
of all the animals of a herd which is being tested. It will 
not injure well animals nor give them the disease. Animals 
that have tuberculosis reveal this fact by a feverish 
condition which arises from eight to twelve hours after the 
tuberculin is administered. Well animals show no such 
reaction. 

Suppressing tuberculosis in cattle. — Little can be 
done in the way of treatment to cure tuberculosis in cattle. 
Those that have contracted it in a mild form often recover. 
Animals found to be well advanced with the disease should 
at once be slaughtered. All diseased stock should be sep- 
arated from well animals, and kept in different barns and 
pastures. 

The milk from mildly diseased cows is sometimes used, 
but it should first be carefully pasteurised. To pasteurize 
milk, it is kept at a temperature of one hundred and forty- 
nine degrees for twenty minutes, or one hundred and 
seventy-six degrees for five minutes. This heating is suf^- 
cient to kill the germs of tuberculosis. 

Texas, or tick, fever. — A troublesome cattle disease 
common throughout the southern states is tick fever, some- 



554 



AGRICULTURE AND 




o 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



555 



times called Texas fever. The disease is caused by a small 
animal parasite carried to the affected animals by a small 
tick. The parasite works in the blood of the animal, caus- 
ing a high fever. 

Loss from the Texas fever ticks. — Not only does the 
tick carry to the animal on which it lives the parasite that 
causes serious disease, but it lives off the blood of its host, 
decreases its vitality, and reduces the amount of milk or 

The Tick Takes Milk as Well as Blood. 




Milk from Tick-Free Cows. From Cows with Few Ticka. From Cows with Many Ticks. 

beef produced. It is estimated that the annual loss to the 
South from this one species alone has amounted to many 
millions of dollars. 

Freeing cattle of ticks. — Treatment of animals sick 
with tick fever is usually not satisfactory. The remedy lies 
in prevention, which means getting rid of the ticks. Sev- 
eral methods are used for freeing cattle of ticks: (1) The 
ticks are picked off by hand, or scraped off several times 
until the animals are free from the pests. (2) The cattle 



556 AGRICULTURE AND 

are sprayed or rubbed with cottonseed oil, fish oil, or a mix- 
ture of kerosene and oil. (3) A dipping vat is used con- 
taining a carefully prepared disinfecting solution. Care 
must be exercised not to pasture cattle on land infested with 
ticks. 

Foot-and-mouth disease. — This is a highly contagious 
disease greatly dreaded by farmers. It attacks not only 
cattle, but hogs, sheep, horses, dogs, cats and poultry. 
Human beings may also take the disease, especially chil- 
dren who drink the milk of diseased cows. Men who take 
care of diseased stock have occasionally become affected. 

The first symptoms of the foot-and-mouth disease in 
animals are loss of appetite, and chills followed by fever. 
In a day or two eruptions the size of a pea make their 
appearance over the linings of the mouth and tongue; these 
small vesicles contain a yellowish watery liquid. The feet 
become swollen, sore and inflamed. Eruptions may then 
appear around the feet, and on other parts of the body. 

Foot-and-mouth disease is not always fatal, but the 
effects in loss of milk, the stoppage of growth and inter- 
ference with fattening for beef are so serious that the most 
stringent efforts are made to check the disease wherever 
it makes its appearance. Affected herds are often slaught- 
ered under the direction of government officials, and the car- 
casses burned or buried. Rigid quarantines are established, 
and no live stock, meat, hides or other animal products cap- 
able of transmitting the disease are allowed to be shipped 
from the territory affected. In 1914 and 1915 fifteen states, 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 557 

including many dairy herds of large cities, were quarantined 
in whole or in part because of the foot-and-mouth disease. 

To prevent contagion, there should be absolutely no 
passing between diseased herds and other territory. Vis- 
itors should stay away from afifected farms; dogs and cats 
should not be allowed to roam about; even birds such as 
have the habit of alighting in barnyards may carry the 
germs. The pasteurizing of milk renders it less dangerous, 
and this precaution should never be neglected at times and 
places where the foot-and-mouth disease prevails. 

Stern measures necessary. — So important Is the pre- 
vention of foot-and-mouth disease that the United States 
Department of Agriculture has issued a poster of warning 
to farmers which contains the following words : 

"Foot-and-mouth disease is so contagions that one 
stricken animal invariably affects the entire herd. The first 
symptoms are sores in the mouth, followed by similar ones 
around the hoofs. The milk may be contaminated and the 
supply is greatly diminished ; the flesh is lost rapidly. Even 
if the animal recovers, its value is greatly decreased. In 
Europe, where the disease is firmly established, the plague 
costs farmers many more millions of dollars each year than 
it has cost the United States to eradicate any of the past 
scourges by killing. No price is too great to keep it from 
getting a firm foothold in this country. 

"Foot-and-mouth disease can be spread in many ways — 
by horses, dogs, cats, poultry, pigeons, human beings, hay, 
straw, manure, etc. If there is infection in your neighbor- 
hood, keep your own animals on and other people's animals 



558 AGRICULTURE AND 

off your farm. If you are feeding skimmed milk, 
boil it. 

"The slaughter and burial of all exposed herds and the 
thorough disinfection, of premises are the only known 
measures that can stop the rapid spread of this disease. 
The government will do this work and pay its fair propor- 
tion for the slaughtered stock. Rigorous local quarantines 
are absolutely necessary until disinfection is completed. 
Township and county officials should cooperate actively 
with state and federal authorities." 

Judging the Age of the Cow by the Teeth 
The cow has a series of eight incisors in the lower jaw, 
but none in the upper. Like the horse the middle pair are 
known as the middles, the next as the intermediates, the 
third as the second intermediates, and the outer pair as 
corners or laterals. 

At birth the calf usually is in full possession of the 
middles; if not, they will make their appearance in a very 
few days and within a month the remaining incisors appear. 
At the age of eighteen to twenty-six months, the middle pair 
of milk teeth is forced out and a permanent set takes their 
place. In like manner the intermediates are changed for a 
new and permanent set at the time the calf is from 
twenty-six to thirty-eight months old. The changes in the 
second intermediates are made when the animal is about 
thirty to forty-eight months old. The corners are changed 
at from forty-five to sixty months of age. Up to this time 
it will be comparatively easy to judge the age of an animal. 
After five years the age can only be approximately esti- 
mated from the actual wear shown by the teeth. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 559 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
HORSES 

MORE than twenty million horses are to be found on 
the farms of the United States. These horses of the 
farms alone are worth the enormous sum of two and a 
quarter billion dollars, or more than all our cattle, both 
dairy and beef. The raising of horses is therefore one of 
the leading industries connected with agriculture. 

The Leading Horse Raising States 

Slightly more than fifty-two per cent, of all the horses 
found on the farms of this country are raised in the follow- 
ing ten states : Iowa, Illinois, Texas, Kansas, Missouri, Ne- 
braska, Ohio, Indiana, IMinnesota and Oklahoma. The farms 
of Iowa and Illinois support approximately one and one-half 
million horses for each state; Texas, Kansas, IMissouri and 
Nebraska have more than a million each, and Ohio, Indiana, 
Minnesota and Oklahoma, more than three-fourths of a 
million each. 

Horses are adapted to a wide range of climates, and can 
be successfully produced in every state. The market for 
horses is good and, under skilful management, they can be 
raised with profit on almost all farms. 



560 AGRICULTURE AND 

Classes of Horses 

Class and grade. — Regardless of breed, horses are 
classed in the markets according to the uses to which they 
are suited. The different classes are : draft horses, chunks, 
ivagon horses, carriage horses, road horses, saddle horses 




A fine type of draft horse. 

and ponies. Animals are graded within each class as choice, 
good, medium, common and inferior. The class to which 
a horse belongs depends on (1) weight, (2) height, 
(3) conformation, or build, and (4) quality. 

Draft horses. — To be in the draft class a horse in 
good flesh must weigh from one thousand six hundred 
pounds to more than a ton. The height ranges from 15-2 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 561 

to 17-3 hands. The form of draft horses is broad, com- 
pact and rugged, with legs short as compared with the 
depth of the body. This build brings the weight close to 
the ground, where it can exert the greatest power in draw- 
ing a load. Draft horses are used largely for city teaming, 
for logging and the like. 

Chunks. — The form of this class of horses is indicated 
by their name. Chunks are heavy-set, short legged, com- 
pactly built horses, of lighter weight than draft horses. 
Their weight varies from eight hundred pounds among the 
lightest of the southern chunks to one thousand five hundred 
and fifty pounds in the North and East. The height is from 
15 to 15-3 hands. The typical farm horse belongs to the 
chunk class. 

Wagon liorses. — Wagon horses are required to com- 
bine weight with action and endurance. City delivery and 
express, fire and artillery horses are selected from this 
class. They must have sound feet ; strong clean legs ; broad 
deep chests ; and show good constitution and quality. Their 
weight is from one thousand and fifty pounds to one thou- 
sand seven hundred pounds; and their height from 15 to 
17-2 hands. 

Carriage horses. — The carriage, or heavy harness, 
class is required to have good action, a fair amount of 
speed, and to be of an elegant form and carriage. 
The head should be small, and well-set, on a long arching 
neck. The body should be smooth and rounded, the back 
short and well coupled, with a long level croup, and the 
hindquarters strong and well developed. The height ranges 



562 AGRICULTURE AND 

from 14-1 to 16-2 hands, and the weight from nine hundred 
pounds to one thousand two hundred and fifty pounds. 
The carriage class supplies the coach, park and cab 
horses. 

Road horses. — Road or light harness horses are 
lighter in build, more angular in form, and possess better 
action than the carriage class. They must have good speed, 
life and quality. They are used for light and fancy driving, 
and for racing. Their weight is from nine hundred to one 
thousand one hundred and fifty pounds, and their height 
from 14-3 to 16 hands. 

Saddle horses. — Saddle horses are built for ease of 
action, strength and sureness of foot. They are also re- 
quired to have mettle, coupled with a good disposition and 
intelligence. The withers are high and thin, and the shoul- 
ders oblique. The back must be short, well muscled and 
strongly coupled, and the gait easy. The height runs from 
fourteen hands for polo ponies to sixteen hands for hunters 
or cavalry horses. The weight may vary from eight hun- 
dred and fifty to twelve hundred and fifty pounds. 

Ponies. — Ponies are chiefly used for children, and 
must therefore first of all have good dispositions. To be 
in the pony class, the height must be under fourteen hands. 
The body is deep and well rounded, the legs and neck are 
short, the croup is level, and the quarters are strong and well 
developed. 

These different classes of horses often merge into one 
another so that it is difficult to tell in which of two classes a 
certain animal belongs. For market purposes it pays to 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 563 

breed for well marked classes, as these always bring higher 
prices than mixed stock. 

Breeds of Horses 

While the breed to which a horse belongs has little 
bearing on its market value if the class marks are strong 



A good pair of chunks, and their offspring by pure-bred sires. 

and the grade high, yet the only way to secure class and 
grade is by pure breeding. Millions of dollars are being 
lost by American farmers every year through the breed- 
ing of grade or scrub horses. 

The value of breeding. — An excellent illustration of 
the difference in market value between pure-bred and grade- 
bred horses is shown in the case of Wisconsin horses (Bui. 
186, Wis. Ag. Exp. Sta.) : 



564 AGRICULTURE AND 



Average value of horses by ages 
4 to 6 
months 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years 



From pure-bred sires $78.77 $132.84 $196.84 $218.00 $303.00 

From grade sires 51.25 85.00 127.50 156.45 200.20 

Difference in favor of 

pure-bred sires 27.52 47.84 69.34 61.55 102.80 

This table is very convincing when it is remembered 
that it costs no more in care and feed to raise a well-bred 
horse than a scrub. The farmer who uses only pure-bred 
sires for his breeding will get almost fifty dollars more for 
his colts as yearlings than if he uses grade sires, while if he 
does not sell until the colt has reached maturity he will 
receive at least one hundred dollars more. If pure-bred 
dams are also used, the difference will be greater still. Will 
it not pay well to "breed up" our horses ? 

Draft breeds. — The chief breeds of draft horses in the 
United States have been imported frorn Europe. The fa- 
vorite of these is the Percheron, which comes from France. 
The Percherons have good spirit, are strong-boned, and 
have sound feet. They show good action, have a high 
degree of intelligence, and respond well to training. 

The Clydesdales come from Scotland. They are longer 
in build than Percherons, have smaller bodies, and less rug- 
ged constitutions. They are strongly marked by a heavy 
growth of hair on the lower part of the leg, especially at 
the fetlock. For use in wet and muddy times this excess 
of hair is a disadvantage, since it is hard to keep dry and 
clean. 

The Belgians come to us-from Belgium, and the English 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



565 



Shires from England. Both are excellent breeds, though 
they have not yet come into the favor enjoyed by the Per- 
cherons, or even the Clydesdales. 

It is chiefly from the heavier breeds that come all our 
draft horses, chunks, wagon horses, carriage, or heavy 




A typical Percheron. 



harness horses. A comparatively small proportion of horses 
in any of these classes is as yet pure bred, most of them be- 
ing a cross with grade or common stock. 

The lighter breeds. — Relatively few farmers 'have 
undertaken the raising of the lighter and speedier breeds of 



566 AGRICULTURE AND 

horses. This has been left to special breeders and stock 
farms that make a specialty of horses. The heavier breeds 
are better adapted to the farm, since the dams can then be 
used for general farm work, and thus serve a double pur- 
pose and thereby add to the profit. 

Among the lighter breeds raised in this country, the 
English Hackney, the French Coach and the German Coach 
are the favorites for the carriage class. For lighter road 
use the breeds most favored are the American Trotter, the 
American Saddle horse and the English Thoroughbred. 

Judging Horses 

The horse is to many people the most interesting animal 
on the farm. The satisfaction and profit from horse raisii.g 
depend very largely on the breed, class and grade. For 
these reasons all who are interested in farm animals should 
learn to judge horses readily and accurately. 

The score-card. — Before undertaking to use the score- 
card in actual judging, one must become thoroughly 
familiar with all its points, understanding as far as pos- 
sible the requirements for a perfect score under any point. 
With this ideal in mind, the animal is to be examined, and 
the score put down on the card. Do not be afraid to mark 
oiT for all bad points. It takes a good animal to grade 
eighty per cent, when marked by a trained judge, and an 
exceptional one to grade ninety per cent. Judges do not 
usually mark closer than one-fourth per cent, on any point. 
The following is used by many authorities and we repro- 
duce it here as one of practical value to both farmer and 
student. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 567 

SCORE-CARD— DRAFT HORSES 

Points 
SCALE OF FOIXTS Stand- Defi- 

ard cient 

GENERAL APPEARANCE— 19 per cent. 

1. Height, estimated hands; actual 

hands 

2. Weight, over 1600 lbs., estimated lbs. 

actual lbs., according to age 6 

3. Form, broad, massive, well proportioned, 

blocky, symmetrical 4 

4. Quality, refined; bone clean, hard, large, 

strong; tendons clean, defined; skin and 

hair fine; feather, if present, silky 6 

5. Temperament, energetic; disposition good- 3 

HEAD AND NECK— 9 per cent. 

6. Head, lean, proportionate size; profile 

straight 1 

7. Ears, medium size, well carried, alert 1 

8. Forehead, broad, full 1 

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, same color 2 

10. Lower jaw, angles wide, clean 1 

11. Muzzle, neat; nostrils, large, open, free 

from discharge; lips, thin, even, firm — 1 

12. Neck, well muscled, arched; throatlatcli 

clean; windpipe large 2 

FOREQUARTERS— 24 per cent. 

13. Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, 

snug, extending into back 3 

14. Arm, short, strongly muscled, thrown 

back, well set 1 

15. Forearm, strongly muscled, wide, clean 2 

16. Knees, deep, straight, wide, strongly sup- 

ported 2 

17. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons de- 

fined, set back 2 

18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 1 



568 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 569 

Points 
SCALE OF POINTS Stand- Defi- 

ard cient 

19. Pasterns, moderate length, sloping, strong, 

clean 2 

20. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, 

waxy; sole concave; bars strong; frog 
large, elastic; heel v^ride and one-fourth 
to one-half the lineal length of toe 8 

21. Legs, view^ed in front, a perpendicular line 

from the point of the shoulder should 
fall upon the center of the knee, can- 
non, pastern and foot. From the side, 
a perpendicular line dropping from the 
center of the elbow^ joint should fall 
upon the center of the knee and pastern 
joints and back of the hoof 3 

BODY— 9 per cent. 

22. Chest, deep, v^^ide, large girth 2 

23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close; coupling 

strong 2 

24. Back, straight, broad, strongly muscled 2 

25. Loins, wide, short, thickly muscled 2 

26. Underline, low; flanks full 1 

HINDQUARTERS— 30 per cent. 

27. Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled 2 

28. Croup, not markedly drooping, wide, heav- 

ily muscled 2 

29. Tail, stylishly set and carried 1 

30. Quarters, deep, broad, heavily muscled, 

thighs strong 3 

31. Gaskins, long, wide, heavily muscled 2 

32. Hocks, large, clean, wide, well set 6 

33. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons de- 

fined 2 

34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 1 

35. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean 2 



570 



AGRICULTURE AND 







lb 



^ 



M ^ S^ ^ ^ "b ^ 






- i^j~>-s^ lA Jr ~ 




Wo 






THE FARMING BUSINESS 



571 



SCALE OF POINTS 



Points 
Stand- Defi- 
ard cient 



36. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, 
waxy; sole concave; bars strong; frog 
large, elastic; heel wide, and one-fourth 
to one-half the lineal length of the toe_ 6 

27. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular 
line from the point of the buttock 
should fall upon the center of the hock, 
cannon, pastern and foot. From side, a 
perpendicular line from the hip joint 
should fall upon the center of the foot 
and divide the gaskin in the middle, 
and a perpendicular line from the 
point of the buttock should run parallel 
with the line of the cannon 3 

ACTION— 9 per cent. 

38. Walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight 6 

39. Trot, free, springy, balanced, straight 3 

Total 100 



Common Defects and Unsoundness in Horses 

Any defect or tmsoundness lowers the value of a horse. 
All who have to do with horses should be able to identify 
the more common faults, and know their causes. (See Pur- 
due Circidar, No. 29.) 



Defects of head, eyes and ears — 

1. Poll evil; sore on top of head, caused by bruises. 

2. Blindness; either with or without defects of eyeball. 

3. "Blue-eyed"; a peculiar bluish color, may indicate blind- 

ness. 

4. Over-mobile ears; showing viciousness or blindness. 

5. Immobile ears; showing deafness or lockjaw. 



572 AGRICULTURE AND 

Defects of the mouth — 

1. Nose discharge; indicating catarrh, glanders, diseased 

molars. 

2. Bit sores, showing tender mouth, or abuse. 

3. Diseased molars; affect health and interfere with eating. 

4. "Parrot" mouth; upper jaw too long, front teeth project 

over lower. 

5. Undershot jaw; lower jaw short; front teeth do not meet. 

6. Clipped tongue; tip cut off to prevent lolling. 
Defects of neck, withers and shoulders — 

1. Neck sores; caused by collar wear on top of neck. 

2. Fistula; running sore on withers or shoulders. 

3. Collar sores and boils; dirty and ill-fitting collars. 
Defects of feet and legs — 

1. Shoe boil; sore at elbow from injury by shoe while lying 

down; also sore from harness band. 

2. Splint; caused by overstrain and abuse of animal in 

driving or riding. 

3. Broken knee; bent backward from injury. 

4. Buck knee; bent forward from stiffening of tendons. 

5. Capped knee; sore on knee — cap caused by injuries. 

6. Greased heel; sores which refuse to heal. 

7. Scratches; sores under fetlocks from filth or dampness. 

8. Windgalls; puffs around fetlock joint from hard driving 

or standing on hard floors. 

9. Cocked ankles; ankles bent forward from misuse. 

10. Navicular disease; contracted foot, favored in action. 

11. Toe cracks; transverse checks across the hoof. 

12. Quarter racks; split in hoof extending up to heel. 

13. Corns; caused by improper care of feet, neglect in shoe- 

ing or misfit shoes. 

14. Thrush; usually caused from standing in damp, filthy 

stalls. 

15. Knocked-down hip; one hip lower than the other from 

blow. 

16. Spavin; either bog, or bone, indicating sprain or injury. 

17. Thorough-pin. 

18. Curb; enlargement at back of hock from sprain. 
General defects— 

1. St. Vitus's Dance; twitching of muscles. 

2. Crampness; tendency for muscles to cramp. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



573 




Limbs and hoofs In profUe: a, Side view of foot with the foot-azlB broken backwara ua a 
result of too long a toe. The amountof horn to be removed from the toe In order tOBtralghlenHho 
footballs la denoted by a dotted line; 6, side view of a properly balanced foot, with a straight foot-azla 
of desirable slant; c, side view of stumpy foot with foot-axis broken forward as a result of overgrowth 
of the quarters. The amotint of horo to be removed in order to straighten the ioot-axls is shown 
by a dotted line. 




(a) Fore feet of regular form in regular standing position. 

(b) Cocked ankles caused by misuse and overstrain. 

(c) Fore feet of base- wide form in toe-wide standing position. 




(a) Fore hoof shod to quicken breaking-over. 

(b) Hind hoof shod to slow the action. 



574 AGRICULTURE AND 

3. Springhalt; one or both hind feet lifted too hig^h. 

4. Roaring; a wheezing, roaring sound in breathing; from 

bad wind. 

5. Heaves; spasmodic breathing. 

Vices — 

1. Cribbing; habit of biting mangers, posts, etc., caused by 

teeth trouble. 

2. Windsucking; habit of biting, and at the same time suck- 

ing in air. 

3. Halter pulling; habit of pulling back when tied. 

4. Biting; vicious tendency to bite people or other horses. 

5. Balking; refusing to move when commanded. 

6. Rolling in stall; likely to become "cast" and cause in- 

jury. 

7. Kicking; showing vicious temper. 

8. Striking; with front feet to injure attendant. 

How to Determine Age by the Teeth of a Horse 

The incisor teeth of the horse offer a convenient and 
comparatively true gage as to age. The horse has six 
incisors in each jaw, the middle pair commonly spoken of as 
the middles, the second pair as intermediates, and the outer 
pair as corners or laterals. Colts at birth are without in- 
cisors ; the middle pair appears when the colt is from ten to 
fifteen days old and is followed by the intermediates when 
the colt is from fifteen to thirty days old. The corners or 
laterals appear when the colt is about four and one-half to 
five months old. These teeth are sometimes called the milk 
or colt teeth, and are gradually replaced by permanent teeth 
as the animal develops into maturity. The middle teeth 
usually drop out when the animal is from two to two and 
one-half years old and are replaced at three years by per- 
manent teeth. At three and one-half the intermediates 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 575 

are forced out by the succession of permanent teeth. The 
corners or laterals are removed when the animal is four 
and one-half years old ; in their stead five permanent corners 
are developed. 

Relation of teeth cups to age. — This represents a 
series of changes from colt to horse teeth, and under 
normal conditions the animal at five years of age should 
possess what is known as a full mouth of teeth. All the in- 
cisors are permanent and should have in their bearing sur- 
face little black cups plainly noticeable in the early life of 
horses. When the horse is six years old, these black cups 
should disappear from the lower middle incisors. At seven 
they disappear from the lower intermediates ; at eight from 
the lower corners ; at nine they disappear from the upper 
middles; at ten from the upper intermediates, and at 
eleven from the upper corners. The changes in all of the 
upper teeth do not take place with quite so much uniformity 
as those of the lower, and therefore do not ofifer so reliable 
a guide in determining the age of a horse. Every student 
of horses should make a careful Study of the teeth, be able 
to recognize the cups and determine the different ages. 

In addition to the loss of the cups, the continued chang- 
ing in the shape and position of the teeth from the maturity 
of the animal to death, offers an approximate guide to the 
determination of the age. When the animal is mature the 
incisors are short and wide, the thickness being about one- 
third of the width. The teeth of the upper and lower jaws 
should at this age meet squarely or nearly at right angles 
to the jaw. As the animal grows older these teeth lengthen 



576 



AGRICULTURE AND 





lor 2 wee Ks 



8 weeKs 





8 months firit Permit Teeth 2 y^5 ^ndPermAt leeVn J>yrs 






AlLPermitTeeth 5yr5. Gyrs old 




7 years old Q^c<SXi> old 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 577 

out, become narrower and thicker, and at the same time 
gradually incline somewhat forward. 

Care of the teeth. — ^The horse, like the human being, 
should have a perfect set of teeth in order that the food 
may be properly masticated and digestion aided in every pos- 
sible way. The eyes, feet, stomach and teeth of every living 
animal constitute the machinery that should be properly 
cared for, and of these four, teeth are not the least im- 
portant, as they bear very close relations to the entire 
working efficiency of animals. We would suggest, there- 
fore, that careful study be made of the teeth and of their 
care, repair and treatment. 

The Care of Horses 

The horse is the most intelligent and companionable of 
the farm animals. It quickly shows the effects of ill treat- 
ment or lack of care and, on the other hand, easily responds 
to training and good usage. 

Unsoundness due to ill usage. — Not a few of the 
defects common to horses should be blamed to their own- 
ers or users. For example, poll evil is frequently caused by 
striking the head against a door or stall beam that is too 
low. Bit sores indicate either a careless or a cruel driver, or 
a bit unsuited to the horse on which it is used. Neck and 
shoulder sores seldom occur if the collar is a good fit, and if 
kept clean. Fistula on withers on shoulders comes from 
collar bruises. Szveeny is the result of a wrench or strain, 
often due to ill-fitting collars. 

In similar way, splints, spavins, curbs, thorough-pins and 



578 AGRICULTURE AND 

other injuries to the legs are often caused by excessive driv- 
ing or pulHng, especially of young horses. Misshapen knees 
and ankles are an evidence of hard usage. Greased heel, 
thrush and scratches come from damp and filthy stalls. 
Roaring is the result of driving until the wind is "broken" ; 
heaves usually come from eating dusty feed; cribbing is a 
sign of the neglect of teeth that need attention. 

The effect of training. — The vices which reduce the 
value of many horses and make them unpleasant to handle 
are usually due more to training than disposition. Halter 
pulling commonly begins in the colt being frightened 
and made to break loose when tied, or else being tied with 
an old and easily broken halter that encourages pulling on 
it. Balking often indicates lack of intelligence and patience 
on the part of the trainer fully as much as stubbornness on 
the part of the horse. Biting may be started by teas- 
ing; and kicking often has its beginning in fright from 
something loose about the harness or vehicle before the colt 
is well broken. 

Treatment of horses. — The horse should be treated 
with kindness and firmness. The driver who strikes or 
jerks because of his anger or petulance deserves the con- 
tempt of all lovers of animal life, and should not be en- 
trusted with horses. One who will work a team in the 
heat and dust and then allow them to stand overnight with- 
out cleaning shows either lack of intelligence about horses or 
cruelty. To drive a team until they are sweaty and then 
allow them to stand in a cold wind unblanketed reveals not 
only heartlessness but bad business management. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 579 

The horse can not be taught like a person. Therefore, 
only one single word of command should ever be used for 
the same act. Whoa should always mean an immediate and 
dead stop; back should mean to step backward, and not 
merely to stop. Some one signal alone should be used to 
start, and the horse never allowed to start without this sig- 
nal. Care in such simple points as these would result in 
much better broken and safer horses. 

Feeding Horses 

The feeding of farm work horses is a different prob- 
lem from the feeding of most other farm stock. This is 
because the horse is fed for work, while other animals are 
fed for meat, milk, eggs and so on. 

The ration for horses. — The ordinary farm ration for 
working horses is some form of hay for roughage, and 
one or more cereals, such as oats or corn. The particular 
kind of hay fed is not important, so that it is in good con- 
dition and free from dust. If dusty hay must be used, it 
should be sprinkled with water as it is fed. Horses seem 
to find timothy hay more palatable than most other kinds, 
but red clover, alfalfa, meadow fescue and other grasses 
have been found satisfactory. It is thought that less grain 
is necessary to keep up the weight of horses at hard work 
when alfalfa is fed instead of some other hay. 

Grain ration for farm horses. — Oats are the choice of 
the cereals for horses wherever they are obtainable. They 
are relished better than most grains, and seem especially 
suited to the horse as a nutrient. Horses fed on oats also 



580 AGRICULTURE AND 

seem to show better mettle than those fed on other 
grains. 

In the corn producing region corn is usually a more 
economical feed for horses than oats, and has therefore 
come into quite general use as a part of the ration. Corn 
and alfalfa hay make a satisfactory ration, at least for a 
limited time, and are cheaper than oats and timothy hay. 
A very satisfactory and rather heavy daily ration for a 
horse weighing from one thousand two hundred to one 
thousand three hundred pounds, and employed at general 
farm labor is : 

7V2 pounds of whole corn. 

7V2 pounds of whole oats. 

1 pound of oil meal. 

3 pounds of wheat bran. 

7V2 pounds of timothy hay. 

7^ pounds of clover hay. 

Other rations that have been proved satisfactory by ex- 
periment are as follows : 

1. Corn, 6 pounds; gluten feed, 6 pounds; bran, 2 pounds; 

timothy hay, 10 pounds. 

2. Corn, 8 pounds; bran, 7 pounds; timothy hay, 10 pounds. 

3. Oats, 6 pounds; corn, 4 pounds; bran, 2 pounds; hay, 12 

pounds. 

Larger horses should receive more, and smaller 
horses less, according to weight. It is also to be noted that 
some horses require more feed than others of the same 
weight. 

How to feed. — For horses with good teeth it is not 
essential whether the grain is ground or fed whole, except 
that the same amount will yield somewhat more nourish- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 581 

ment if ground. This difference may sometimes be as much 
as one per cent, in favor of ground feed. On days when 
work horses are allowed to stand idle the amount of grain 
should be reduced about one-half. If the idleness contin- 
ues beyond three or four days, the amount of grain may 
gradually be increased, but should not reach the full work 
ration. 

Most of the hay should be fed at night and in the morn- 
ing, as there Is not enough time at noon to secure the neces- 
sary nourishment from roughage. The noon feed of grain 
may be slightly heavier than that for night or morning. 
About twice as long Is required for horses to eat ground 
grain fed dry as when it is dampened. 

Watering horses. — Much difference of opinion exists 
concerning the best time for watering horses, some prefer- 
ring to water before feeding, and others after. Careful ex- 
periments have shown that the time of watering is not highly 
important. If horses come from the field thirsty, it is rea- 
sonable to suppose that they will relish their meal better if 
they have had a drink. If the feed consists largely of dry 
roughage it also seems best to water before feeding. What- 
ever system Is adopted should be followed regularly, as 
changing about often injures the appetite or produces some 
other derangement. Horses should never be given a large 
amount of water when highly heated from working or 
driving. 



582 



AGRICULTURE AND 



SCORE-CARD FOR MULES 



SCALE OF POINTS. 



Age, estimated yr., actual ^ 

GENERAL APPEARANCE— 26 Points. 
Height, 16 hands or over; estimated 



Possi- 


Points 


ble 


Defi- 


Score. 


cient. 



actual 

Weight, 1,200 to 1,600 lbs. in good condition; 

estimated lbs., (score according 

to age) 

Form, broad, massive, symmetrical, blocky — 

Quality, bone, clean, large, strong; tendons de- 
fined, skin and hair fine 

Action, energetic, straight, true, elastic; walk, 
stride long, quick, regular; trot free, bal- 
anced, rapid 

Temperament, active good disposition; stylish 
carriage 

HEAD AND NECK— 9 Points. 
Head, proportionate size, clean-cut, well-carried, 

profile straight or slightly Roman-nosed 

Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, 

even, firm 

Eyes, full, bright, clear, large, same color 

Forehead, broad, full 

Ears, large, tapering, fine texture, well-carried, 

alert 

Lower jaw, angles wide, space clean__ 

Neck, medium length, well-muscled, arched; 

throatlatch fine; windpipe large 

FOREQUARTERS— 22 Points. 
Shoulders, long, moderately sloping, heavily 

and smoothly muscled, extending into back- 
Arms, short, heavily muscled, thrown back, 

well set 

Forearm-, long, wide, clean, heavily muscled— 



Possi- 


Points 


ble 


Defi- 


Score. 


cient. 


2 




2 




1 




3 





THE FARMING BUSINESS 583 



SCALE OF POINTS. 



Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, well-sup- 
ported 

Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons large, 
clean and well-defined, set back 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

Pasterns, moderate slope and length, strong, 
clean 

Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; 
soles concave; bars strong, full; frog large, 
elastic; heels wide and strongly supported- 6 

Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from 
the center point of the shoulder should fall 
upon the center of the knee, cannon, pas- 
tern and foot; from the side, a perpendicu- 
lar line dropping from the center of the 
elbow joint should fall upon the center of 
the knee and pastern joints and the back of 
the hoof 3 

BODY— 10 Points. 
Withers, moderate height, smooth, extending 

well back 1 

Chest, deep, wide; breastbone low; girth large 2 

Ribs, deep, well-sprung, closely ribbed to hip_ 2 

Back, broad, short, strong, muscular 2 

Loin, broad, short, heavily muscled 2 

Underline, long, low; flank well let down 1 

HINDQUARTERS— 33 Points. 

Hips, broad, smooth, level 2 

Croup, long, wide, heavily muscled, not mark- 
edly drooping 2 

Tail, attached high, well-carried 1 

Thighs, deep, broad, strong, heavily muscled-- 2 

Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 2 

Stifles, strong, clean, muscular 2 

Gaskins (lower thighs), long, wide, clean; ten- 
dons large, heavily muscled 2 



584 



AGRICULTURE AND 



SCALE OF POINTS. 

Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean 

Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons large, 

clean and well-defined, set back 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

Pasterns, moderate slope and length, strong, 

clean 

Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; 
soles concave; bars strong, full; frog large, 

elastic, heels wide and strongly supported 

Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line 
from the point of the buttock should fall 
upon the center of the hock, cannon and 
foot; from the side, a perpendicular line 
from the hip joint should fall upon the 
center of the foot and divide the gaskin in 
the middle; and a perpendicular line from 
the point of the buttock should run parallel 
with the line of the cannon 



Fossi- Points 

ble Defi- 

Score. cient. 

7 

2 

1 

2 

5 



Total _.- 100 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 585 



CHAPTER XXXV 
SWINE 

HOGS outrank every other farm animal in number in 
the United States, and are exceeded in value only by 
horses and cattle. There are more than sixty million hogs 
on our farms, or nearly two porkers for every three of the 
population. The aggregate market value of swine is about 
two-thirds that of dairy cattle, and not far from equal to 
the value of beef cattle. American farmers own more than 
six hundred million dollars' worth of hogs. 

The Pork Producing Region 

A large proportion of our hogs is produced in the 
states forming the corn belt. This is natural, since corn 
is one of the cheapest and best grains for raising pork. 
Many other regions can grow hogs as successfully as the 
corn states, however, and the industry is spreading, espe- 
cially in the South and West. 

The leading states in hog production. — Sixty per cent, 
of all our pork is raised in ten states. In the order of their 
importance in pork production these states are: Iowa, Illi- 
nois, Missouri, Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio, Kansas, Texas, 
Wisconsin, Georgia. The number of swine in these states 
runs from about two million in Georgia to nine million in 
Iowa. 



586 AGRICULTURE AND 

Breeds of Hogs 

Many of our important breeds of cattle and horses orig- 
inated in Europe, but we have ourselves developed nearly 
all our chief breeds of hogs. The breeds most favored in 
the United States are Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Ches- 
ter-White and Berkshire. The Berkshire, the only imported 
breed, came from England, Other less well-known breeds 
are the Yorkshire, Cheshire, Suffolk, Hampshire and 
Essex. 

Poland-China. — Poland-China has long been a favorite 
breed of hogs, especially in the corn states. They are black 
in color, with irregular white markings on almost every 
part of the body. The ears are drooping. The Poland- 
Chinas make a rapid growth, and reach good size. They 
are rather small of bone, and not so good foragers as some 
other breeds. Some fault has been found with them for 
not producing larger litters. 

Duroc-Jersey. — The Du roc-Jerseys are easily recog- 
nized by their reddish color. They are one of the most 
prolific and vigorous breeds, somewhat slow in develop- 
ing, and strong of frame. Their bones are large, and 
they reach good size and weight. They have large droop- 
ing ears, are good foragers, and thrive well on pasturage, 
or when following a herd of fattening cattle. 

Chester-White. — The Chester-White breed are of 
large frame, rather slow in maturing, and possess good 
constitutions. They are white without markings, and have 
drooping ears. They are raised more in New England than 
in the corn region. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 587 

Berkshire. — Berkshires resemble the Poland-China 
breed in color and markings, being black with white mark- 
ings. They may be distinguished by their erect ears. They 
have a compact frame, are good feeders, and make a quicker 
growth than most other breeds. The Berkshire has long 
been a favorite breed, especially throughout the Middle 
West and is fast becoming the favorite in the southern 
states. 

The Care of Hogs 

Pigs are generally considered not so cleanly in their 
habits as some other farm animals. In so far as this is true 
it is often made possible because of neglect of . owners. 
Many farmers seem to think that it does not matter how 
hogs are kept. Nothing could be a greater mistake. Hogs 
thrive only under hygienic conditions of feeding and hous- 
ing. Millions of dollars are thrown away every year by 
failure to give hogs the care they require. 

Need of good housing. — Hogs are the most poorly 
housed of our farm animals. Any kind of place is thought 
good enough for them on many farms. Yet hogs are far 
more sensitive to cold than horses or cattle, which have 
thick fur coats to protect them, while the hog has almost 
none. Hogs lie down more than most animals, and need a 
better bed. They live close to the ground, and easily breathe 
in dust and impurities. They need sunshine more than do 
horses and cattle, yet little is provided for them. 

Hogs take cold very easily. Little pigs, especially, need 
to be kept warm, dry and away from drafts, if they are not 
to have their growth checked, or even lose their lives by 



588 



AGRICULTURE AND 



catching cold. Neglect of these simple rules indicates shift- 
less farming, and causes great loss. 

Hog-houses. — Every farm that makes a business of 
raising pigs will find a well-built hog-house a paying invest- 
ment. The most economical and convenient hog-house has 
a row of pens along each side of a central alley which, in 
larger buildings, should be wide enough to drive through. 
This allows the hauling in of straw for bedding, and corn 




Hog-house for southern states. 

or slops for feeding, thereby saving much labor. It also 
provides for the easy removing of manure. 

The separate pens should be from five to eight feet wide, 
and from eight to twelve feet long, depending on the use to 
be made of them. Pens for brood sows need not be larger 
than eight by ten feet. If feeding is to be done in the 
pens they should be larger, or, better still, the partitions 
should be removable. The floor may be of cement, though 
for farrowing sows a temporary board floor should be laid 
over the cement, because of the coldness of a cement floor. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



589 



Woven wire stretched over the top of the ground to pre- 
vent rooting is sometimes used as a floor. Such a floor, 
however, is hkely to be either dusty or wet. Board floors are 
expensive and drafty if built above ground. They also har- 
bor rats, which not infrequently kill young pigs. A dou- 
ble trough may supply each pair of pens. Young pigs 
should have their own troughs outside the main pens. 




Hog-honse for northern states, side elevation ; showing 
arransenient of outside feeding itens. 

Lighting and ventilating hog-houses. — It is not un- 
common to find hog-houses that cost several thousand dol- 
lars built almost without windows or other means of admit- 
ting light, air and sunshine. Other houses are built with 
windows in unfavorable positions, so that the sunlight 'can 
not fall on the floor of the pens where it is needed by the 
pigs. 

The hog-house should run east and west, so that it may 
have one full side exposed to the sun. This arrangement 
will necessitate having one row of pens along the north side. 
In order to get sunlight into the north pens, the ''broken 



590 AGRICULTURE AND 

roof" style of building is used. Care must be taken to place 
both upper and lower windows at such a height that the 
sunlight will reach the floor during the winter and early 
spring months, or during the farrowing season. 

To do this, the angle of the sun, say in February and 
March, and the width of the building must be carefully com- 
puted. At the latitude of southern Iowa, or central Illinois, 
Indiana, Ohio and Nebraska, the tops of the upper win- 
dows of a hog-house twenty feet wide should be ten and 
one-half feet from the ground. The windows should be 
placed higher in southern and lower in northern states. 
If the north pens are eight feet long, and the alley is four 
feet wide, the sunshine will just reach the back line of the 
pens at ten o'clock and at two o'clock on the first of March. 
Care to such details will save the lives of many young pigs 
farrowed in the northern states during early spring. 

Bill of Material 

The following material is necessary for the construction 
of the portable house: Board 

feet. 
Seven pieces, 2 by 4 inches, 16 feet long for the entire 

framework 75 

One piece, 3 by 6 inches, 18 feet long, for two runners 27 

Four pieces, 1 inch by 1 foot by 16 feet long, for the floor 

floor atid two ventilators 64 

One piece, 1 by 6 inches by 18 feet long, for braces on 

doors and ventilators 9 

Fifty pieces % by 2 inches, 16 feet long, tongued and 

grooved, for entire covering of the house 133 

Total 308 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



591 



Two 4-lnch barrel bolts, one for the door and one for the 
back ventilator, 4 button latches for the two end ventilators. 

Six pairs of 12-inch strap hinges for the roof, doors and 
ventilators. 

Six 5-inch hooks and eyes, No. 6 wire, to hold up ventilators 
when open. 

Two pieces of No. 9 hog fence, 1 by 7 feet, for two end 
ventilators. 

Two pieces of burlap, 1 foot square, for windows. 

Fifteen feet No. 11 wire, to hold up ventilators when open. 

Nails: 20-penny nails for the framework, 8-penny common- 
head nails for the lighter lumber, 8-penny coated nails preferred 
for thfe tongued-and-groved boards. 

Individual hog cots. — Many hog raisers are now pro- 
viding two types of hog-houses, the large permanent house 
for farrowing purposes, and the small individual cot for 
the sows and their litters as soon as the pigs are old enough 



n 




Individual hog cot, on runners, so that it can be drawn from 
place to place. 



592 AGRICULTURE AND 

to be put out-of-doors. The individual cots may be scattered 
about the lot or pasture, and moved as often as necessary 
to keep the quarters clean. For winter service the cots 
can be collected side by side in a sheltered place, banked 
and used for sleeping quarters. 

The feeding floor. — The use of a sanitary feeding 
floor should be much more common than it is. It is a 
great waste of grain to scatter it in the mud or dust of a 
dirt yard. This mode of feeding is also injurious to the 
health of the pigs, for it compels them to breathe in a great 
amount of dust and to eat impurities in order to get the 
grain. The effect is seen in such diseases as "thumps" and 
"wheezes," and in the greater liability to colds, tuberculosis 
and other troubles. 

The best feeding floor is made of concrete, slightly raised 
above the level of the ground, if made outside the hog-house, 
and sloping slightly so that it can easily be washed off. 
Such a floor is not expensive, and will pay for itself many 
times over in the feeding of hogs. 

Feeding Hogs 

Hogs are probably the best money makers on the farm, 
if properly handled. The same amount of feed will produce 
a greater value of pork than any other meat. The returns 
also come in sooner than with most other farm animals. 
Money invested in hogs can be turned rapidly, as pigs are 
marketable when eight months old. The yearly sales from 
a herd of hogs should be from two to four times the orig- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 593 

inal investment. Much of the profit depends on intelli- 
gent feeding. 

The feeding of pigs requires the consideration of three 
stages in their development: (1) from farrowing to wean- 




A good tyi>e of feeding pen for smiiU pigs. 

ing, (2) from weaning to fattening, and (3) fattening for 
market. 

Feeding young pigs. — Little pigs do not need any 
food other than their mother's milk for the first two or 
three weeks of their life. \\'hen they have reached this age, 
they will begin to nibble on shelled corn. A little of this 



594 AGRICULTURE AND 

should be fed them in a place outside the pen. By the time 
they are from three to four weeks old, they may be fed 
a small amount of skim-milk, in which has been mixed a 
little ground feed, such as shorts. They should have a 
trough of their own where it can not be reached by the 
mother. 

The amount of mixed feeds and shelled com given small 
pigs may be increased till they are ten weeks old, when they 
should be weaned. When they are deprived of their moth- 
er's milk, which up to weaning time supplies the basis of 




Weaning trougli used on experimental farm, Beltsville, Md. 

their nourishment, it is very important that they be fed a 
ration capable of producing the most rapid growth and 
best health. 

Feeding pigs after w^eaning. — At the time of weaning, 
the feed should not be greatly changed, except to increase 
the amount, until the pigs have become accustomed to the 
loss of the mother's milk. If pasture is available, the quan- 
tity of corn may be increased. If the pigs mirst be kept 
in a dry lot, a larger proportion of soft feeds should be 
used. 

It is to be remembered that the leadnig purpose in feed- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 595 

ing pigs from the age of two months up to the age of six 
or seven months is not to fatten them, but to cause them to 
grow large frames and develop good constitutions. I£ 
they are fattened too early, it stops their growth, and re- 
duces their vitality, thereby making it unprofitable to con- 
tinue feeding them up to full maturity. 



SAME LITTER 



ALONl 




Pasturage for growing pigs. — Growing hogs, there- 
fore, require muscle and bone making food, instead of a 
ration that will fatten them. They need exercise to pro- 
mote their growth, and give them strong vigorous frames 
for the taking on of fat. For these reasons, pasturage 
should supply the basis of the young hog's ration. Clover, 
alfalfa, peas, rape, vetch and other succulent plants are the 



596 



AGRICULTURE AND 



cheapest and best feeds for the period between weaning and 
fattening time. 

To this green feed will need to be added a certain pro- 




R.nck for Feedina: Alfalfa ITay to Hosts., 



portion of com, or other grain, in order to make a balanced 
ration. But the poorest and most expensive way to grow 
pigs is to shut them in a dry lot and feed them a ration of 
corn alone, as is so often done. The farm lacking in well 
arranged hog pastures is not ready for the business of mak- 
ing money out of pork. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 597 

Balanced rations for young hogs. — No matter what 
other ration may be fed pigs, milk is always desirable. For 
milk is highly palatable to hogs, and it contains more of 
the necessary food elements than any other food. The fol- 
lowing are suggested as rations suitable for growing hogs 
that have, in addition, access to good pasturage : 

1. Corn, 60%; shorts, 30%; tankage, 10%; or 

2. Corn, one-third; wheat, one-third; oats, one-third, 

ground; or 

3. Corn, one-half; shorts, one-half; or 

4. Corn, 607o; shorts, 20%; linseed-oil meal, 20%; or 

5. Corn, one-third; milk, two-thirds. 

It has been shown by careful tests that if pigs must be 
fed in dry lots, ration No. 1, consisting of corn sixty per 
cent., shorts thirty per cent, and tankage ten per cent., 
will produce double the gain that can be secured from corn 
alone. 

Fattening hogs. — Pigs should be ready for fatten- 
ing by the time they are from six to six and one-half months 
old. \Mien fattening begins, the ration should have a much 
larger proportion of corn. In fact, hogs may be profitably 
fattened on corn by the addition of milk to the ration. 

While being fed for fattening, the hog does not require 
the amount of exercise needed during the growing period. 
It is not best, however, to shut feeders up in a close pen, 
for a certain amount of exercise is necessary to keep the 
hog in a healthy condition and with good appetite. 

Snapped corn is preferable to husked ears on account of 
the greater amount of w^ork demanded of the hog, and the 
slower eating required. Where the fields can be properly 



598 



AGRICULTURE AND 



fenced off, the best of all ways to feed corn to hogs is to 
allow them to do their own harvesting. This method of 
feeding, called "hogging down" corn, gives the hogs about 
the right amount of exercise, allows them to eat whenever 
they desire, and saves the farmer the labor of husking, 
hauling and feeding. The same amount of corn will also 
produce more pork. 









i'cUis ui . 


I liOg. 




A. Snout 




K. Back 




S. Hock 


B. Eye 




L. Loin 




T. Hind leg 


C. Face 




M. Side 




U. Fore flank 


D. Ear 




N. Tail 




V. Foot 


E. Jowl 




O. Rump 




W. Pasterns 


F. Neck 




P. Breast 




X. Dew claw 


G. Fore 


leg 


Q. Hind flank 


Y. Stifle 


H. Shoulder 


R. Ham 




Z. Belly 


I. Chest 


line 









THE FARMING BUSINESS 599 

Diseases Affecting Hogs 

Young pigs are not particularly liable to any one dis- 
ease, but easily fall prey to troubles arising from improper 
care. Cold, wet, dirty pens cause the death of many new- 
farrowed pigs. Dusty floors, filthy mud-holes and un- 
cleaned troughs are always harmful. Exposure to extreme 
cold or to burning heat is sure to tell in loss of health or 
weight. It is safe to say that half the troubles attacking 
the younger pigs, at least, could be saved by providing them 
with more sanitary surroundings. 

Thumps.' — This is a disease that manifests itself in a 
spasmodic manner of breathing, which suggests the name. 
It is usually a digestive trouble caused by overfeeding 
and lack of exercise. Certain worms may also cause 
thumps. The best preventive for thumps, especially with 
young hogs, is plenty of pasture with green feed. The 
treatment for thumps is to reduce the amount of feed, give 
a laxative, and make sure that the pigs get exercise. 

Scours. — Scours, or too great a laxness in the digestive 
tract, are caused in young pigs by overfeeding, a feverish 
condition of the mother sow, soured feeds, dirty troughs, 
or some other unsanitary condition connected with their 
feeding. The first step in applying a remedy is to find 
and remove the cause. If the trouble continues, each pig 
may be given a few drops of laudanum. 

Worms. — Worms are a source of great trouble in 
raising pigs. Through rooting in the dirt, and being fed 
on dirt floors, young pigs pick up certain kinds of worms 
which continue to live in their digestive organs. Pigs 



600 AGRICULTURE AND 

never thrive when afflicted with worms. The coat shows 
rough, growth is hindered, the general health affected, and 
a large proportion of the feed wasted. A simple remedy 
is to give one teaspoonful of turpentine to sixty or eighty 
pounds of hog, and repeat the dose in three days. Another 
remedy is five grains of santonin combined with three grains 
of calomel for each sixty or eighty pounds of hog. This 
should be followed by an effective physic. Whatever the 
remedy employed, the pigs should be starved for twelve 
hours before being dosed. 

Lice. — Many hogs are lousy. The lice can easily be 
detected by looking between the legs or behind the ears. 
Hogs suffering with lice will make a slower growth and 
fatten less easily than clean hogs. So important is this 
matter that many hog raisers provide as a part of their 
equipment a dipping tank, in which some form of crude oil 
or coal tar is used as a bath. Where the dipping tank is not 
available, or in the case of young pigs, the remedy should 
be sprayed or rubbed on. 

Tuberculosis. — Hogs, like various other animals, are 
subject to tuberculosis. Many hogs have this disease in 
some form. Its effects are seen in a stoppage of growth, 
a general run-down appearance, loss of appetite, and in 
some cases, death. Because hogs are kept so short a time, 
and tuberculosis is so slow a disease, there is comparatively 
little loss owing to deaths from tuberculosis. But many 
animals when slaughtered are found to be unfit for food be- 
cause of the disease. 

Tuberculosis is caught either from diseased pigs, or from 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



601 



drinking the milk of tubercular cows. It is probable that 
most of the tuberculosis in swine comes from the latter 
cause. ]Many hog raisers now pasteurize the milk before 
feeding it to the pigs. This is the only sure preventive 
against tubercular milk. 

Hog cholera. — By far the worse disease scourge af- 
fecting hogs is cholera. It not infrequently wipes out en- 




Two hogs: one a pure bred, the other a "razor-back." The 
hirge one was owned and raised by the club boy, receiving 
good care and a balanced ration. The small one, owned by a 
farmer with old notions and habits, had poor cai'e and a nar- 
row ration. 

tire herds within a few weeks. The average yearly loss 
from hog cholera for one year in a single state was esti- 
mated at three million dollars. In one single "cholera year" 
another state lost at least twenty million dollars from this 
cause. Other states suffer in like proportion. It is, there- 
fore, of the highest importance that the causes of cholera, 
and the modes of prevention be well understood. 



602 AGRICULTURE AND 

Hog cholera is a germ sickness caught by infection 
from hogs that have the disease. It is not necessary for 
well animals to come in direct contact with cholera hogs 
in order to catch the infection. The germs may be carried 
by dogs ; by pigeons, crows, or other birds that alight in 
the hog lot to pick up grain ; by men who have tramped 
through a lot where cholera hogs have been ; by new stock 
brought into the herd ; and by streams that have become 
infected. Wlien hog cholera is in the region, therefore, it 
is necessary to observe every precaution to keep infection 
away from the herd. 

Effects of cholera. — The disease Is so marked in Its 
symptoms that it is not hard to distinguish from most other 
hog sicknesses. In hog cholera, the lymphatic glands, lungs, 
intestines, kidneys and liver are highly Inflamed. Red 
blotches appear on the skin. Appetite is lost, the gait be- 
comes staggering, the eyes inflamed. Not infrequently 
bleeding at the nose and vomiting occur. The temperature 
is usually from one hundred and seven to one hundred and 
eight degrees Fahrenheit. The first ones of the herd to be 
stricken commonly die within a few days ; those that take 
the disease later may live for several weeks, or even recover. 

Treatment. — No absolute cure has been discovered 
for hog cholera. Nearly all animals that take the disease 
usually die. A method of preventing well herds from 
contracting cholera has, however, been discovered. This 
is to give well hogs anti-cholera serum ; or, in efifect, 
vaccinate them, as is done with people for smallpox and 
diphtheria. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



603 



The hog cholera serum is secured by drawing blood from 
a hog which has first been rendered immune to cholera, 
either by having had the disease or being given a special 
treatment for the purpose of immunizing, and then having 
had cholera germs injected into his veins. Each animal of 
the herd to be treated is given by hypodermic injection a 
certain quantity of this serum in proportion to its size. 




I had serum. 



I v/ish I had. 



If the treatment is successful, it will immunize the herd 
against cholera for several weeks. When the serum is 
given to well herds, a cholera hog is sometimes brought 
among them, or its carcass even fed them, at the time the 
treatment is given. This method is thought to make the 
immunity more certain. 

Success of the serum treatment. — The success of the 
serum treatment is still questioned by many. It seems rea- 
sonably certain, how^ever, that w^iere failure has followed its 
use, it was because the serum was improperly prepared 



604 AGRICULTURE AND 

or not skilfully administered. Various experiment stations 
have found that there is a loss of only about ten per cent, 
of the hogs treated in herds already infected, and of only 
one or two per cent, in well herds where the serum treat- 
ment has been carefully used. The manufacture of serum 
by the state, or official inspection of its manufacture by pri- 
vate plants, will make its use as a cholera preventive still 
more effective. No one is justified in neglecting to treat his 
herd with the serum when hog cholera threatens. 

The following excellent advice is given on a poster issued 
by the University of Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment 
Station : 

Symptoms of Acute Cholera 

1. Failure to come up for feed, or refusal to eat. 

2. Huddling together in pens or nests. 

3. Stififness, cough, discharge from eyes, and redness of skin. 

4. Constipation followed by persistent diarrhoea. 

5. Rise of body temperature (fever) above 104 F. . 

6. Death after being sick for a few days. 

To Prevent the Introduction of Cholera 

1. Quarantine for four weeks all hogs brought to the farm. 

2. Keep away dogs and all other animals and persons coming 

from cholera-infected farms. 

3. Pasture the hogs at some distance from main highways 

and away from contaminated streams. 

4. Feed a laxative diet but avoid feeding very much new 

corn. 

5. Disinfect the troughs daily and the pens and yards each 

week with quicklime. 

6. Have an experienced person vaccinate, with serum, all hogs 

while healthy if the disease is in your locality. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 605 

To Insure Your Herd Against Cholera, Use Hog Cholera 

Serum 

The state legislature has provided for the manufacture of hog 
cholera serum which is sold at one cent per c. c. (cubic 
centimeter). It costs about 25 cents each to protect pigs and 
75 cents to $1.00 for mature hogs. 

The serum treatment is recommended on the strength of the 
favorable results obtained from its general use during the past 
five years. 

To Control Cholera If In Your Herd 

1. Sell all well hogs which are ready for market. 

2. Call a competent veterinarian immediately to give the serum 

treatment. 

3. ■ Burn carcasses of dead hogs promptly, also all rubbish. 

4. Clean pens and apply quicklime liberally for disinfection. 

5. Keep hogs from wallows and insanitary nesting places, and 

provide roomy, dry sleeping quarters. 

6. Use every precaution to prevent spread of the disease to 

neighbors' herds. 

ludging the Age of Hogs by the Teeth 

In these days when a pure-bred pig is worth all the 
way from twenty-five to one thousand dollars, it is quite 
important to be sure about the age. It is therefore worth 
while to study the methods of judging the age of the pig. 
As in the case of other animals the age can be approxi- 
mately told by the teeth. 

The pig has six incisors in either jaw; the corner pairs 
appear at birth, the middles and intermediates come when 
the pig is from three to four months of age. When he is 
from six to ten months, the corners are replaced by the 
permanent teeth, all intermediates are replaced at from 



606 AGRICULTURE AND 

twenty to twenty-four months and the middles at from 
thirty to thirty-six months. It will be interesting to note 
that the order of changing for the permanent is the oppo- 
site or reverse of that of the horse, the cow and the sheep, 
commencing as you will note from the corners and work- 
ing toward the center. In all the other farm animals they 
commence at the center and work toward the corners. The 
first teeth to appear with the pig are the corner teeth and 
the last the centers. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 607 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
SHEEP 

THE raising of sheep has never received the attention it 
deserves in most regions. There are at present only a 
little more than fifty million sheep on the farms of the 
United States. Almost sixty per cent, of our sheep are found 
in ten states, seven of which are in the far West, one in the 
South, and only two in the middle and eastern states. Ac- 
cording to their importance in sheep raising, these states 
are: Montana, Wyoming, Ohio, New Mexico, Idaho, Ore- 
gon, California, Michigan, Texas and Utah. Other states 
having important sheep interests are : Missouri, Indiana, 
Kentucky, Iowa and Illinois. 

Importance of Sheep on the Farm 

Sheep could be raised with good profit on thousands of 
farms where they are now unknown. They are among the 
most hardy of the domestic animals, and will thrive in al- 
most every part of the country. 

Sheep as foragers. — Sheep have no equal among the 
farm animals as foragers. They will eat a wide range of 
roughage, much of which is not of value to other stock. 
Certain weeds not palatable to most animals are eaten by 
sheep, and they therefore aid in keeping pastures, meadows 



608 



AGRICULTURE AND 



and fields clean. Sheep will graze steep hillsides not acces- 
sible to horses or cattle, and will feed from the foliage 
and twigs of brushland pastures. They find a good living 
on stubble-fields, and will clean up the waste leaves, husks 




Sheep grazing in "Washington. 

and stalks of corn-fields, being able to thrive in fields where 
cattle and horses have gleaned all that they can well find. 
Sheep can therefore obtain a considerable part of their liv- 
ing from material that would otherwise be lost. 

Sheep require little labor. — Comparatively little labor 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 609 

is required in caring for sheep. In order to maintain the 
fertihty of the soil, we need to raise more stock on our 
farms. Half a dozen sheep will produce as much income 
as a dairy cow, and demand much less labor for their care. 
Their heavy coats enable sheep to live in relatively open 
sheds in the winter, providing they are kept dry. The cost 
of shelter is therefore low. 

One of the chief practical difficulties in sheep raising 
is that the fences suitable for horses and cattle will not 
hold sheep. The present tendency, however, is to build 
closer fences, so that fields will be available for both hogs 
and sheep. In some regions serious loss of sheep occurs 
from vicious dogs, wolves and coyotes. Sheep-killing dogs 
should be relentlessly shot. 

Sheep bring quick returns. — Sheep are almost as good 
as poultry for quick returns. For ordinary farm purposes 
dual purpose breeds are usually selected to produce both 
wool and mutton. In this way a double yield can be se- 
cured — fleeces from all the flock, and either lambs or mut- 
ton in addition. 

It is estimated that the fleece from good sheep should 
pay for their feed, thereby leaving the lambs raised or the 
mutton produced as profit. Lambs are ready for market at 
from seven to twelve months of age, thus allowing the 
money invested in them to be turned quickly. 

Breeds of Sheep 
Sheep, like cattle, are kept for two purposes. Just as 
cattle include both the beef and the dairy breeds, so sheep 
comprise mutton breeds and merino, or zvool breeds. 



610 



AGRICULTURE AND 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF BREEDS 

According to Use 

Mutton Breeds 



Hampshire 
Oxford Down 


Leicester 
Romney Marsh* 
Ryeland* 


Shropshire 
Wensleydale* 




General Purpose Breeds 


Cheviot 
Cotswold 


Dorset 
Southdown 

Wool Breeds 


Suffolk 
Tunis* 


Herdwick* 
Highland 


Lincoln 

SMALL 


Merino 


Herdwick* 


Merino (American) 


Tunis 




According to Length of 


Staple 




SHORT 




Cheviot 

Dorset 

Hampshire 


Herdwick* 
Highland 

MEDIUM 


Merino 
Suffolk 


Oxford 
Ryeland* 


Shropshire 

LONG 


Southdown 


Cotswold 
Highland 


Leicester 
Lincoln 


Wensleydale* 



Cotswold 
Leicester 



Dorset 

Hampshire 

Merino 



Cheviot 
Herdwick* 



According to Most Congenial Altitude 

SEA LEVEL TO 1,000 FEET 

Romney Marsh Lincoln 

Wensleydale* 

1,000 TO 2,500 FEET 
Oxford Down Southdown 

Ryeland* Suffolk 

Shropshire Tunis 

2,500 TO 4,000 FEET 
Highland Welsh* 

Shetland* 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



611 





According to Horns 






POLLED 


■ 


Romney Marsh 
Shropshire 
Southdown 
Suffolk 


Tunis 

Wensleydale* 
Cheviot 
Cotswold 

HORNED 


Hampshire 
Leicester 
Lincoln 
Oxford Down 


Dorset 

Exmoor* 

Merino 


Herdwick* 

Welsh* 

Highland 


Females 

Polled 

Lonk* 




According to Quality of Wool 


Merino 


FINE 
MEDIUM 




Cheviot 

Dorset 

Hampshire 


Herdv^ick 

Suffolk 

Oxford 

COARSE 


Ryeland 

Shropshire 

Southdown 


Cotswold 
Highland 


Lincoln 
Leicester 

According to Size 
LARGE 


Wensleydale* 


Cotswold 

Hampshire 
Leicester 


Lincoln 
Oxford Down 
Romney Marsh 

MEDIUM 


Suffolk 
Wensleydale* 


Cheviot 

Dorset 

Jiiehland 


Merino (French) 
Ryeland* 


Shropshire 
Southdown 



Hampshire 

Highland 

Oxford 

Cheviot 

Cotswold 

Dorset 



According to Color of Face 

DARK 

Ryeland* Southdown 

Shropshire 



LIGHT 
Herdwick* 
Leicester 
Lincoln 



Tunis 



Romney Marsh 
Wensleydale* 



*Too little known in America to be of importance. 



612 AGRICULTURE AND 

Market classes of sheep. — Wholly regardless of breed, 
market demands divide sheep into three groups or classes. 
These are : ( 1 ) fat, or mutton sheep, or those ready for 
slaughter; if the animals are less than one year old, they 
are called lambs; (2) feeders, or animals ready to be fat- 
tened; and (3) breeders. 



SCALE OF POINTS 
1. Age 



Score-Card 






TS 


Stan- 


Points 




dard 


Deficient 



GENERAL APPEARANCE— 
38 per cent. 

2. Weight, score according to age — 8 

3. Form, long level, deep, broad, low 

set, stylish 10 

4. Quality, clean bone; silky hair; 

fine, pink skin; light in ofifal, 
yielding high percentage of 
meat 10 

5. Condition, deep even covering of 

firm flesh, especially in regions 
of valuable cuts. Points indi- 
cating ripeness are, thick 
dock, back thickly covered 
with flesh, thick neck, full 
purse, full flank, plump breast 10 

HEAD AND NECK— 7 per cent. 

6. Muzzle, fine; mouth large; lips 

thin; nostrils large and open. 1 

7. Eyes, large, clear, placid 1 

8. Face, short; features clear-cut 1 

9. Forehead, broad, full 1 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 613 

SCALE OF POINTS Stan- Points 

dard Deficient 

10. Ears, fine, alert 1 

11. Neck, thick, short, free from 

folds 2 

FOREQUARTERS— 7 per cent. 

12. Shoulders, covered with flesh, 

compact on top, snug 5 

13. Brisket, neat, proportionate; 

breast wide 1 

14. Legs, straight, short, wide apart, 

strong; forearm full; shank 

smooth, fine 1 



BODY— 20 per cent. 

15. Chest, wide, deep, full 4 

16. Ribs, well sprung, long, close 4 

17. Back, broad, straight, thickly- 

fleshed 6 

18. Loin, thick, broad, long 6 

HINDQUARTERS— 16 per cent. 

19. Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2 

20. Rump, long, level, wide to tail- 

head 4 

21. Thighs, full, deep, wide 4 

22. Twist, plump, deep 5 

23. Legs, straight, short, strong; 

shank fine, smooth 1 

WOOL— 12 per cent. 

24. Quantity, long, dense, even 4 

25. Quality, fine, pure; crimp close, 

regular, even 4 

26. Condition, bright, sound, clean, 

soft, light 4 

Total 100 



614 AGRICULTURE AND 

Judging the Age By the Teeth 

The sheep like the cow and the horse has a series of 
eight incisors in the lower jaw and none above. The new- 
born lamb as a rule has no incisors, but the entire set will 
develop during the first thirty days of life of the animal. 
These teeth are called the lamb's milk teeth and are soon 




Sheep grazing, typical of western states. 

replaced by permanent teeth. At the age of fifteen to 
eighteen months, the middles appear ; about two years of 
age the intermediates; from three to three and one-half 
years the second intermediates, and from four to four and 
one-half years of age the corners are developed. Up to this 
time the determination of age of sheep may be quite definite ; 
after this approximation only can be reached by a study of 
the general wear, appearances and condition of the teeth. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 615 

This test will of course depend in a large measure upon 
the physical condition of the animal and the care that has 
been given in both housing and feeding. 

Feeding Sheep 

What has been said about the ability of sheep to forage 
for a great part of their food must not be understood to 
mean that it does not matter what sheep are given to eat. 
For sheep are exactly like all other animals in requiring 
the right proportion of nutritive elements In their food. 
Lacking a proper ration, they will be checked in growth, 
delayed in fattening, or short on the quantity and quality of 
wool. 

Feeding ewes kept for breeding. — Ewes that are to 
produce lambs in the spring may be fed through the winter 
on a cheaper ration than that required for the feeders. The 
ewes need more of the muscle-forming, and less of the fat- 
producing foods. Their rations may therefore consist more 
largely of roughage, and less of grains than for the fat- 
tening lambs. 

For breeding ewes weighing from one hundred and 
twenty-five to one hundred and fifty pounds, the following 
daily rations have been tested by the Minnesota Experiment 
Station and have been found to be economical and satis- 
factory : 

Ration No. 1. Ration No, 2. 



3.5 pounds of corn stover. 2.0 pounds of clover hay. 

2.0 pounds of roots. 1.4 pounds of corn stover. 

0.4 pounds of oats or shelled 0.4 pounds of oats and corn 
corn. mixed. 



616 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Feeding for market. — The ration for fattening re- 
quires a larger proportion of fats and carbohydrates than 
the ones just described. It has also been found that lambs 
fatten best with a mixture of succulent food along with the 
usual roughage and grain. 




Montana sheep ready for shipment. 

The Cornell University Experiment Station has tried 
extensive experiments in fattening different lots of lambs 
during a period of one hundred and ten days. Each of the 
following rations served fifty lambs for one day : 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 617 

Ration No. 1. Ration No. 2. 



60 pounds of silage. 65 pounds of mixed hay. 

50 pounds of mixed hay. 35 pounds of corn, 

35 pounds of corn. 15 pounds of oats. 

13 pounds of oats. 5 pounds of brewer's grains. 
5 pounds of brewer's grain. 

Ration No. 3. Ration No. 4. 



65 pounds of mixed hay. 60 pounds of silage. 

10 pounds of corn. 50 pounds of mixed hay. 

20 pounds of brewer's grains. 10 pounds of corn, 

20 pounds of gluten. 20 pounds of brewer's grains. 

5 pounds of oats, 20 pounds of gluten. 

5 pounds of oats. 

It should be understood in studying these rations that 
at the beginning of the feeding period a larger proportion 
of roughage and a smaller proportion of grain were fed. By 
the end of the one-hundred-and-ten-day period this propor- 
tion had been reversed. The rations as given are the daily 
average for the whole time. 

The actual amount of nutrients is the same for each of 
these four rations, yet the results differ considerably both 
as to cost and the amount of fat produced, as is shown by 
the following comparisons : 

Average gain per sheep Cost per pound 

Ration in 110 days of gain 

1 22.7 pounds 10.6 cents 

2 15.7 " 15.9 " 

3 18.9 " 13.2 " 

4 25.1 " 9.6 " 

It will be noted that the most rapid gains, and at the 
lowest cost per pound were from the rations that contained 



618 AGRICULTURE AND 

silage. It is also seen that the lowest gain, and at the 
highest cost per pound, was from ration No. 2, where all 
succulent food was lacking, and most of the grain ration 
consisted of corn and oats. 

Value of Mutton in the Diet 

From the earliest times mutton has been a popular food 
both in eastern and western countries. The ease with 
which the sheep is raised has made it a favorite with all 
primitive peoples, as well as more advanced nations. The 
flesh of the sheep has approximately the same value for food 
as beef. The percentage of waste from the two animals is 
about the same, averaging a little less than twenty 
per cent, in each case. Mutton is also a favorite meat diet 
because of the ease with which it is digested and the fact 
that its use agrees with nearly every one. Many people who 
can not stand a diet of pork or even of beef find it possible 
to eat mutton. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 619 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
POULTRY 

THE raising of poultry is considered of rather incidental 
importance on most farms. A few chickens are kept 
for supplying the table with fresh eggs and an occasional 
fowl. Perhaps a flock of turkeys, ducks or geese are added 
for the sake of variety. Little attention is usually given to 
the possibility of large profits from the sale of eggs and 
poultry. 

Yet, in spite of this somewhat haphazard method of 
treating the poultry industry, its aggregate returns are very 
large. For more than five and one-half million farms have 
a flock of chickens or other fowl. In addition, not a few 
people in villages and towns keep enough fowl for home 
use. 

Distribution of Poultry Production 

Nearly five hundred million fowls are kept on the farms 
for our population. Considerably more than one and one- 
half billion dozen eggs are produced annually. This is 
enough to supply every man, woman and child with fifteen 
dozen eggs per year. The value of the eggs is in excess of 
three hundred million dollars a year, or sufificient to pay 
nearly three-fourths of the running expenses of all our 



620 AGRICULTURE AND 

public schools. The fowls themselves are worth above two 
hundred million dollars. 

The ten leading poultry states. — Ten states supply 
about fifty-four per cent, of all the eggs we produce. These 
states are Missouri, Iowa, Ohio, Illinois, Kansas, Indiana, 
Texas, Pennsylvania, New York and Michigan. 



Poultry Raising as a Farm Industry 

There are several good reasons why the raising of poul- 
try should occupy a more important place than it now does 
on most of our farms all over the United States. 

Increasing demands for eggs and poultry. — Eggs 
form one of the most necessary and palatable articles of 
food. With improved methods of shipping, parcel-post 
service and cold storage they have increasingly become a 
staple on almost every table, city as well as country. The 
prices are high, a dozen eggs bringing the farmer about as 
much as a pound of butter. The demand for fowl as a sup- 
plement to other kinds of meat has also greatly increased, 
and there is now a ready market throughout the year for all 
kinds of poultry suitable for the table. 

Low^ cost of feeding poultry. — A fair-sized flock of 
poultry can be kept on the farm with but little expense for 
feed. This is because fowl will gather up the greater part 
of their living from material that would otherwise be wasted. 
Scattered grain from the feed lots ; undigested grain from 
farm animals ; weed and grass seeds ; grass and various 
green plants about the barn lots, worms, bugs, grasshoppers 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



621 



and other insect pests form a large part of the diet of farm 
poultry during most of the year. 

The labor of caring for poultry is light. — The labor 
connected with poultry raising is much lighter than with 
other farm animals. ]\Iuch of the work is suited to the 
strength and interest of children, and gives the training in 
responsibility which every child needs. With a little over- 




A year's product of au average beu and a good hen. The 
average hen laid 75 eggs, the good ben 223 eggs. 



sight, children from ten to eighteen years can successfully 
take almost entire charge of poultry raising and make it 
highly profitable. This has been fully demonstrated in many 
boys' and girls' poultry clubs in every state. 

Quick profits are realized. — The profits from a well 
managed flock of chickens are not only liberal and certain," 
but quick. Chickens are ready for market within a few 



622 AGRICULTURE AND 

months from the time they are hatched, and hens are at 
their best as layers during the first and second years of their 
life. And the eggs afford a continuous source of income 
to meet the expense of any feed or other supplies that are 
bought, or to add to the bank-account. 

Almost all boys and girls could become expert chicken 
raisers and, by making arrangements with their parents to 
receive a share of the income from the flock, earn their 
own money for a farm, clothes, books, schooling, travel or 
whatever else they may desire. 

Breeds of Chicketis 

According to experts there are over one hundred 
standard varieties of chickens raised in the United States. 
There are many other varieties not sufficiently developed to 
be called standard. For practical purposes the standard 
varieties may all be grouped in four classes; (1) General 
purpose breeds; (2) meat or table breeds; (3) tgg breeds; 
(4) ornamental breeds. 

General purpose breeds. — The general purpose 
breeds are the result of an attempt to combine egg-laying 
with good table qualities. The favorites of these breeds are : 

Plymouth Rocks, Barred, White and Buff. 

Wyandottes, Silver, Golden, White, Buff, Black, etc. 

Javas, Black and Mottled. 

Dominiques, Rose-comb. 

Rhode Island Reds, Single-comb and Rose-comb. 

Buckeyes, Pea-comb. 

Orpingtons, Buff, Black and White. 

Houdans, Mottled. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



623 







Barred Plymouth Rocks. 







Siugle-corub Rhode Island Reds. 



624 AGRICULTURE AND . 

Meat breeds. — The meat, or table, breeds are chiefly 
raised for the large markets. They must be of good shape 
and size, quick growers and ready fatteners. The principal 
breeds of this class are : 

Brahmas, Light and Dark. 

Cochins, Bufif, Partridge, White and Black. 

Langshans, Black and White. 

Dorkings, White, Silver-gray and Colored. 

Indians, White Game. 

Egg breeds. — The prime consideration in the egg 

breeds is that they shall be good layers, begin laying young, 

and continue for a considerable period of time. The chief 

breeds are: 

Leghorns, Brown, Buff, White, Black, etc. 

Minorcas, Black and White. 

Spanish, White-faced Black. 

Andalusians, Blue. 

Anconas, Mottled. 

Hamburgs, Gold and Silver Spangled, White and Black. 

Redcaps, Rose-comb. 

Ornamental breeds. — The ornamental breeds are not 
important for practical farm purposes. Some of the favor- 
ites of these breeds are : 

Polish, White-crested Black, Golden, Silver, White, Golden. 

Crevecoeurs, Black. 

La Fleche, Black. 

Bantams. 

Games. 

It is best not to mix breeds of chickens. First one should 
decide what class is desired, whether egg, meat, or general 
purpose. Then a pure breed of this class should be selected, 
and the strain kept free from mixture with other breeds. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



625 







Single-comb Buff Orpingtons. 




Black Langshans. 






626 AGRICULTURE AND 

Producing Chickens 

A successful hatch depends (1) on securing fertile un- 
injured eggs, and (2) on proper incubation. 

Eggs for hatching. — Heredity has its effect in fowl as 
well as other animals. The eggs for hatching should there- 
fore come from the choicest and most vigorous members 
of the flock. The best plan is to separate from the main 
flock a sufficient number of desirable hens to produce the 
eggs required for setting. These can be kept by them- 
selves until the hatching season is over. 

In order that eggs may hatch at all they must be fertile. 
They are made fertile by the presence of a male bird in 
the flock during the laying season. One male should be 
supplied for every ten or twelve hens. Since one-half of the 
heredity of the entire flock is dependent on the male bird, 
he should be pure bred, the best of his kind, young and 
vigorous. 

Care of eggs before setting. — Eggs shcald be fresh 
when they are set, never more than two weeks old, and 
better if not more than a few days from the nest. They 
should be kept rather cool, a suitable temperature being 
between fifty and sixty degrees Fahrenheit. Eggs that have 
been badly chilled will not hatch. It is necessary, therefore, 
that eggs intended for hatching shall be gathered at fre- 
quent intervals during cold weather. Many poultrymen 
think it is best to turn the eggs over every day or so during 
the time they are stored before setting. They should never 
be jarred or shaken. 

Hatching with the hen. — Eggs may be successfully 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



627 



hatched either with a hen or an incubator. If the hatch is 
not to consist of more than from one hundred to two hun- 
dred chicks, and if the hens come of a breed of good setters, 
it is doubtful whether it pays to use an incubator. 

Only quiet, motherly hens of good disposition should be 
used for setting. The nest should be made of a box from 
fourteen to sixteen inches square, and six inches deep. Four 










Light Brahma s. 

inches of earth should be placed in the box, hollowed slight- 
ly, and covered with chaff or straw. The broody hen should 
be removed to the nest at night and given a few china eggs 
for a day or two to make sure that she is in condition for 
sitting. From thirteen to fifteen eggs may then be given 
her for the hatch. It is well to dust both hen and nest with 
insect powder to destroy vermin. The sitting hen should 



628 AGRICULTURE AND 

be well fed on such grains as corn, wheat, or oats, have 
plenty of fresh water, and be let off the nest a short time 
each day for exercise and a dust bath. 

Hatching with the incubator. — Although there are 
many different makes of incubators, they all supply the heat 
necessary for hatching by one of two methods, either hot 
air, or hot water. All of the standard makes will be found 
satisfactory, though the hot-air type seems less likely to get 
out of order. 

Success with the incubator depends much more on the 
operator than the machine. For unless the temperature and 
ventilation are kept right, the eggs properly turned, and 
other necessary conditions met, the hatch is sure to fail. 
The directions supplied with the machine must be faith- 
fully followed, else one need not hope for success. 

Testing for infertile eggs. — About the sixth day after 
setting the eggs should be tested and the infertile ones re- 
moved. The testing may be done by placing a small lamp 
or a lantern in a box through one side of which just oppo- 
side the light a hole has been cut somewhat smaller than 
an egg. The testing should be done in the dark, preferably 
at night. The egg is held against the opening in front of 
the light. As the light shines through, the infertile eggs 
will appear clear, while the fertile egg will show a network 
of threads leading out from a center, and floating about 
as the egg is turned. If a number of hens were set at the 
same time, and many infertile eggs are found, one hen 
may be released, or given a new supply, and the fertile 
eggs distributed among the others. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 629 

Care of newly hatched chicks. — The chicks first 
hatched from a setting should be removed from the nest 
in about twenty-four hours. If they are not, they will begin 
to leave the nest themselves, and the hen is likely to desert 
the nest before all the eggs are hatched. The chicks must 




Testing eggs with candle. 

be kept warm and comfortable until the mother is ready for 
them. 

When the hatching is done in an incubator, the chicks 
are left for twenty-four hours after hatching and then re- 
moved to the brooder, w-hich must be at a temperature of 



630 



AGRICULTURE AND 



from ninety to ninety-five degrees Fahrenheit. By the time 
the chicks are a month old the brooder may be brought 
gradually down to seventy degrees. 

Feeding Chickens 

Feeding young chickens. — For the first forty-eight 
hours after hatching the young chick needs no feed of any 
kind. Nature had provided for this period by having the yolk 




Children and chicks take to each other. 

of the egg absorbed into the abdomen of the chick just before 
it is hatched. This food must be used up before the chick 
is ready for more. 

The first food given the chicks may be stale bread soaked 
in milk and squeezed dry ; hard boiled eggs chopped fine, 
shell and all ; or cracked corn, wheat or oats. A good grain 
ration for chicks is made of equal parts of cracked com, 
cracked wheat and cut oats fed five times a day. An excel- 
lent supplementary ration to hasten growth is the follow- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 631 

ing : bran, ten pounds ; shorts, ten pounds ; cornmeal, five 
pounds ; meat scraps, five pounds ; charcoal, two and one- 
half pounds ; grit, one and one-half pounds. This mixture 
may either be fed wet or dry. Plenty of sour milk will add 
greatly to the efifectiveness of the ration. Green foods 
should also be supplied from the first. 

Feeding laying hens. — Hens, like other animals, do 
best on a ration balanced to meet their needs. There is 
no one best ration, since the necessary food elements can be 
obtained from many different sources. It is certain, how- 
ever, that fowls require grain, meat, or milk, mill feeds 
such as shorts, or bran, green foods, sharp grit, shell and 
water. 

The following is recommended as a well balanced lay- 
ing ration, though wheat may be left out and more corn 
and oats added, or milk supplied instead of the meat scraps. 
(Purdue Exteiuion Bulletin, 10.) 

Geain Dry Mash 



10 pounds of corn. 5 pounds of bran. 

10 pounds of wheat. 5 pounds of shorts. 

5 pounds of oats. ZV2 pounds of meat scraps. 

The grain is fed in a litter of straw night and morning, 
and the mash left before the fowls the greater part of the 
day. Green food is added to this ration. Grit, charcoal 
and oyster shells are to be fed in a hopper to which the 
fowls should have access all the time. 

Feeding chickens for fattening. — Chickens should be 
specially fattened for market. Not only is weight added, 
but the quality of the meat greatly improved by fattening. 



632 



AGRICULTURE AND 



and a higher price obtained. When unfattened chickens 
are selling at ten cents, the same fowls when fattened will 
bring fifteen cents in the city markets. 

Both the pen and the crate method of fattening are used. 
Pen fattening requires less time and attention than crate 
fattening. The fattening pen should be kept darkened ex- 
cept at feeding time, in order that the chickens may remain 




A well-arrauged interior, showing nests and feeding equipment. 

quiet. A suitable ration is fed at regular intervals, and in 
as large quantities as the fowls will eat in from twenty to 
thirty minutes. 

Crate feeding. — ]\Iore rapid fattening is possible by- 
placing from six to nine chickens in a crate. The fowls are 
given a regular ration, and kept from all exercise. About 
two weeks is the average time required for fattening. An 
excellent fattening ration may be compounded as follows : 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 633 

10 pounds of cornmeal. 

5 pounds of shorts. 

5 pounds of ground oats. 
40 pounds of buttermilk. 

Cramming. — Poiiltrymen who make a business of fat- 
tening for city markets often use the cramming system of 
feeding. This method is based on the fact that chickens 
will not eat so much as they can assimilate and use in mak- 
ing fat. The fowl is taken from the pen or crate and held 
while soft food is pressed down the throat into the crop, or 
passed into the crop by means of a tube attached to a 
cramming machine. This forcible feeding will considerably 
hasten the fattening process. 

Producing and Marketing Eggs 

Properly handled eggs are the most profitable part of 
the poultry business on the farm. It is therefore well to 
study the conditions necessary to the largest production of 
eggs. The number of eggs produced by a flock depends 
(1) on the breed, whether of the laying, or meat, type; (2) 
on the feed, whether it consists of a balanced ration con- 
taining the elements required by the egg; and (3) the 
housing and care. 

Profitable layers. — There Is a great difference in the 
laying qualities not only of different breeds, but also of 
individual hens. An average grade or scrub hen will lay 
about seventy-five eggs in a year ; a high-class hen of a lay- 
ing breed, more than two hundred. These two hens eat the 
same amount of food, take the same amount of room, and 



634 AGRICULTURE AND 

require the same amount of care. The one hardly pays for 
her keep, the other makes possible a substantial profit. It 
will pay every farmer to weed out the poor layers from 
his flock, and fill their places with productive hens. 

Age and egg production. — Young hens are the best 
layers. Only in the case of exceptional layers should hens 
be kept after they are two years old. Hens that have 
passed their second year will continue laying and produce 
a fair number of eggs, but younger hens will produce more 
eggs, and should therefore take the place of the older ones. 

Pullets should begin laying in the fall of their first year. 
In order that they may do this, it is necessary to have them 
hatched out early in the preceding spring, preferably not 
later than March or April, and about two months earlier in 
the South. They should then lay throughout the winter, 
and be at their best the following summer. 

The quality of eggs. — Eggs are rated commercially 
according to size as extras when the weight is from twenty- 
six to twenty-eight ounces to the dozen ; as firsts when they 
weigh from twenty-four to twenty-six ounces to the dozen ; 
and as seconds when they weigh less than twenty-four 
ounces. In some places eggs are now sold by weight. For 
these reasons the size is of great importance. 

To command the highest price, eggs should also be uni- 
form in shape and color, the shell smooth and free from 
spots, and clean without having been washed. Tested with 
the candler the air cell should be no larger than a dime, 
thus indicating freshness ; the contents must appear opaque, 
the yolks barely visible, and free from any discoloring; the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 635 

white must show thick and compact, the yolk not floating 
about. 

Effect of infertility on quality. — No eggs except those 
intended for hatching should be fertile. This is because 
infertile eggs keep much longer and in better flavor than 
fertile eggs. If a fertile egg is allowed to stand in a warm 
temperature for two or three days it begins to develop 
blood-rings; that is, it begins to develop the young. This 
process is sure to go on during the marketing and shipping, 
thus greatly reducing the value of the eggs. The infertile 
egg is free from all this difficulty, and wall keep fresh much 
longer. 

It is estimated that the loss from allowing eggs to be- 
come fertilized is more than fifteen million dollars annually 
in the United States. All male birds should therefore be 
kept away from laying hens when the eggs are to be used or 
sold. This will have no effect on the number of eggs pro- 
duced. 

Rules for egg production. — The follow^ing rules for 
egg production are given by the Poultry Division of the 
United States Department of Agriculture: 

1. Keep the nests clean; provide one nest for each four 

hens. 

2. Gather the eggs twice daily. 

3. Keep the eggs in a cool drj^ room or cellar. 

4. Market the eggs at least twice a week. 

5. Market, kill or confine all male birds as soon as the 

hatching season is over. 



636 AGRICULTURE AND 

Housing the Poultry 

There are almost as many different styles of poultry 
houses as dwelling houses. The exact form of the poultry 
house is not important, though some types are more pleas- 
ing in appearance and less expensive than others. Every 
state agricultural college has plans for poultry houses 
adapted to the region and will be glad to supply these to 
citizens of the state. No matter what the style, however, 
certain fundamental requirements should be met by all 
poultry houses. 

Drainage. — Poultry are especially sensitive to unhy- 
gienic surroundings. Impurities arising from ground sat- 
urated with unclean seepage, and dampness coming from 
undrained soil are sure to injure the fowls. The poultry 
house should be built on well drained ground. Drain tile 
should be used to carry the water away if necessary. 

Room. — In many Instances a flock of chickens are 
crowded into a space far too small for them, and the 
owner then wonders why they do not thrive well or lay 
eggs. The amount of floor space should be from four to five 
square feet for each bird. If there is free access to a shel- 
tered yard, somewhat less than this may serve, but better 
sell part of the flock than overcrowd them in small pens. 

Ventilation. — Chickens require far more air accord- 
ing to their weight than larger animals. Confinement in 
close, ill-smelling rooms is certain to lower their vitality, 
bring on diseases, and interfere with laying. In climates 
where the poultry house can not have an open front, two 
or more sashes should be covered with muslin instead of 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



637 



being glazed, and hung on hinges so that the window may 
be thrown open in good weather. In bad weather the sash 
may be closed and yet admit sufficient air. Drafts should 
never strike chickens either while they are on the roost or 
the floor. 

Sunlight. — Sunlight is the best of disinfectants. The 
poultry house should front the south, and have a reason- 
able number of glazed windows besides the muslin sashes. 
Too much glass makes the house excessively hot in the 
summer and very cold in the winter; too little glass leaves 




Inexpensive poultry house for small flock. 



the quarters dark and gloom}', hinders the chickens in feed- 
ing, and encourages disease. 

Freedom from dampness. — AA^hen frost gathers heav- 
ily inside the poultry house in cold weather it shows too 
great a degree of dampness. This may come from the 
ground floor, or lack of ventilation and sunlight. If a soil 
floor is used, there should first be filled in several inches 
of broken rock. On top of this may be placed a coating of 
cinders, and over the cinders a layer of soil. The soil floor 
at its best is hard to keep clean, dry and free from odors. 



638 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Cement makes an excellent floor, as it can easily be washed. 
Over the cement should be spread four inches of straw or 
hay. 

Comfortable roosts. — Fowls spend much time on the 
roosts. It is therefore important that the roosts be com- 
fortable. Roosts may be made from two-by-two-inch stuff, 
rounded on the upper edges ; they should be placed about 
two and one-half feet from the floor. Eight inches below 




This roosting-nesting outfit is easy to keep clean, and can be car- 
ried out-doors for treating witla lice exterminators. Hens enter 
nests tlie back way. 



the roosts should be a removable board or floor to catch 
the droppings. 

Nests. — The nests may be built in a series of boxes 
along the side, or, better still, under the dropping board. 
Hens lay best in a secluded place. The nests should there- 
fore be covered, and sufficiently enclosed to make them 
partially dark. Openings through the outer wall large 
enough to admit the hand into the nests will allow the 
gathering of the eggs withotit entering the building. Care 
must be taken, however, to provide a way to close these 
holes so that drafts may not strike the nests. 



THE FARAIING BUSINESS 



639 



Colony houses. — Colony houses are small buildings 
intended for from fifteen to twenty-five fowls, and are 
movable. They may be constructed on the same plan as the 
larger building, and are placed on sills or runners so that 
they may be dragged from place to place with a team. 
Poultrymen who use colony houses move them frequently 
thus securing better h3^gienic conditions. The colony house 
is especially desirable for hens with broods of chickens. 




Colony Louses r.uJ runs for ducks. Massachusetts. 

Many large poultry raisers use both the permanent building 
and the colony house for their flocks. 



Poultry Diseases 

The poultryman's aim should be to prevent diseases 
rather than cure them in his flock. For a fowl sick with 
any serious disease is hard to treat, and the bird should 
usually be killed at once to save time in caring for it and 
the danger of infecting others. • 



640 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Sanitation in the poultry yard. — Chickens are subject 
to a number of diseases that depend chiefly on lack of 



FCINTS 






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The parts of a chicken. 

cleanliness around the premises. Lice and various para- 
sitic mites attack little chicks or older fowls alike. Fre- 
quent whitewashing of the poultry house, washing the roosts 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 641 

with kerosene, and spraying with kerosene emulsion such 
as is used for fruit trees, are some of the preventives for 
these pests. 

A simple and effective lice powder is made of one pint of 
tobacco dust mixed with two quarts of fine road dust. Sul- 
phur may be used in place of the tobacco dust, and finely 
sifted hard coal ashes in place of the road dust. The soil of a 
poultry yard should occasionally be sprayed with kerosene 
emulsion, or coated with whitewash after all refuse has 
been removed. If the ground is plowed or spaded late in 
the fall and allowed to freeze during the winter many para- 
sites and disease germs will be destroyed. 

White diarrhea. — This is a disease affecting young 
chicks within the first four days of their life. They are 
most subject to attack the first twenty- four hours, and im- 
mune after ninety-six hours. The disease is caused by a 
bacterium found in the egg laid by a hen that carries the 
germs in her body. It may also be caught by contagion 
from chicks that have the disease, or from contact with in- 
cubators where the germs have lodged. There is at present 
no wholly successful remedy. A good measure of preven- 
tion is to keep incubators, brooders and all feeding utensils 
thoroughly disinfected. 

Professor Knapp, of the North Carolina Experiment 

Station, recommends the following as a good remedy fof 

the disease : 

Zinc sulphocarbonate 15 grains 

Calcium sulphocarbonate 7^ grains 

Sodium sulphocarbonate 7i/2 grains 

Bichloride of mercury 6 grains 

Citric acid 3 grains 



642 



AGRICULTURE AND 



This amount should be mixed with one gallon of water 
and used for drinking purposes during the first month. 
After this the chicks should have it two times a week for 
two weeks. 

Gapes. — Gapes is another disease attacking young 
chicks. It is caused by a small worm picked up from the 
soil. The worms attach themselves to the inner walls of 
the windpipe, where they draw their food from the blood 
of the chick, thereby weakening it, and also clogging the 
passage so that the chick gasps for breath. 






Mite, louse and gape worms. 

Here again prevention is mostly a question of sanita- 
tion. If the soil is free of the worms, there will be no 
gapes in the chickens. It is well, therefore, to keep the 
young chicks on clean new ground on which former broods 
have not been raised. 

Cholera. — Several dififerent kinds of germs commonly 
found in the intestines of chickens may, under certain con- 
ditions, cause a disease known as cholera. True chicken 
cholera is caused only by one particular germ, however. 
Cholera is contracted by contact with fowls sick with the 
disease, by germs carried by new birds brought into the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 643 

flock, by germs brought by wild birds that alight in the poul- 
try yard, or by dogs and other animals that roam from 
place to place. 

It does not pay to try to cure fowls that have contracted 
the disease. It is best to kill them at once, burning or 
deeply burying the bodies. Care should mostly center on 
prevention. First of all, the flock must have sanitary sur- 
roundings — good air, sunshine, quarters that are dry and 
clean, and should have suitable food. 

The poultry house and yard must be disinfected fre- 
quently. New fouls brought into the flock must be kept by 
themselves for a week to make sure they do not carry in- 
fection. Stray animals should be shut from the chicken 
yard. The careful following of these simple precautions 
will greatly lessen the danger from chicken cholera. 

Roup. — This is but another name for a kind of con- 
tagious catarrh among poultry which closely resembles in- 
fluenza, or grippe, in man. Roup is thought to be contracted 
only by contact with infected birds. It attacks the mem- 
branes of the eye, mouth and throat, causing inflammation 
and a sticky discharge. The disease is accompanied by 
high fever. Roup may be brought into the flock by newly 
purchased birds, by fowls that have been taken to poultry 
shows, or by pigeons and other birds. 

Roup is one of few poultry diseases that may be suc- 
cessfully treated. The sick fowl should be separated from 
the flock and given a warm, dry, well-ventilated place. All 
the afifected parts should be washed with some antiseptic 
mixture. This may be done with a spray, or by plunging 



644 AGRICULTURE AND 

the head into the liquid wash. The following are suitable 
washes : 

1. Boric acid, 1 ounce; water, 1 quart, or 

2. Permanganate of potash, 1 dram; water, 1 quart, or 

3. Peroxide of hydrogen, 1 ounce; water, 3 ounces. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 645 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
THE FARM HOME 

ALL successful farming must make the farm home the 
Lcenter of interest and effort. It is the home and home 
life after all that set the final purpose for improving the 
fertility of the soil, raising good crops and producing fine 
herds and flocks. The end and aim of all one's work and 
planning is not merely to make more money in order to buy 
more land and therefore raise more stock. The home and 
its life must be made to share in the general prosperity. 

The ideal for the home. — The home should be a place 
of which every member of the family is proud and in which 
all can be satisfied and happy. This does not require that 
the home shall be expensive and elaborate, but it must be 
home-like and its atmosphere must radiate the home spirit. 
A good home is an anchorage to the children which will 
hold them in times of temptation and moral stress as almost 
nothing else can do. Happy is the child whose home is 
such that the thought of bringing reproach or disgrace upon 
it is beyond the reach of his imagination or understanding. 
The true home is not only a place to rest from labor and to 
eat when hungry, but a spot in which to live the fullest, 
broadest and happiest life possible. It is a place to which 
fond memories cling and to which one's steps gladly return 



646 



AGRICULTURE AND 



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THE FARMING BUSINESS 



647 




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648 AGRICULTURE AND 

after days, months or even many years of absence. Any- 
thing less than this in one's home leaves something more 
to be desired. To make the best possible home an ideal 
domestic unit is surely therefore the end and aim of our 
striving, no matter what be our occupation. 

The Farm Home and Grounds 

The farm usually offers the best opportunity anywhere 
to be found for a pleasing and attractive location for the 
house and grounds. There is no skimping of room as in 
the case of the thirty or fifty foot town lots. There is no 
shutting off the view with other buildings, skyscrapers or 
factories. 

Choosing the location for the houses. — The placing 
of the farm-house offers an opportunity for the application 
of taste and good judgment. It should be so located with 
reference to the other buildings that it will not seem to be 
crowded out of the way by the larger barns, corn cribs and 
other buildings. It is not unusual to see a reasonably 
attractive farm-house so placed that it is so over-shadowed 
and elbowed as to appear out of harmony with its sur- 
roundings. It is more or less common even to locate barns 
so that they stand closer to the road than the house and 
partially obscure the house from view or cause it to look 
unimportant. Indeed in some arrangements of farm build- 
ings one would almost think that the house was put in as 
an after-thought and allowed a position among the other 
buildings only as a favor and by suft'erance. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



649 



In any well conceived plan for a set of farm buildings, 
the location of the house will be first decided upon and the 
other buildings will take their places with reference to this 
central position of the residence. Anything less than this 
preeminence given to one's home does not do justice to 
the home sentiment or its opportunities. 




A line liomestead, but lacking in trees. 

Lawn and trees. — The farm home is incomplete with- 
out a well kept lawn of fair size. True it requires some 
labor and a little time to keep up a lawn, but the added 
beauty and the satisfaction that attaches to a well kept 
homestead will more than compensate for this additional 
expense and trouble. 

The farm home will of course be liberally supplied with 
shade and fruit trees. These will be so placed as not to 



650 



AGRICULTURE AND 



obscure the view of the house nor over-shade it, thereby 
depriving it of sunshine and air. The position of the build- 
ings and the slope of the ground will be considered in 
decorating the home place. All natural advantages will be 
made the most of to enhance the beauty and attractiveness. 
A reasonable amount of shrubbery will be placed in clumps 
here and there to give variety and thus relieve the monotony 




Well-kept barns. 



of an unbroken stretch. The house lot will be well fenced 
for the exclusion of farm animals and not to make a place 
for chickens, pigs or calves. The family on the farm 
should have one little patch of their own free from the 
trespassing of either crops or animals, where shade trees, 
arbors, swings, hammocks, seats and flower beds can be 
enjoyed without interference. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 651 

The back yard. — The standards of farm and home 
management may be pretty well judged by the condition of 
the back yard of the farm home. Upon the carelessly kept 
farms the back yard is found to be a litter place where are 
collected the remnants of broken down machines or out- 
worn utensils, boards, barbed wire and the general miscel- 
lany that has a tendency to collect on every farm. Good 
management will see that the back yard of the farm home is 
clean, attractive and businesslike in appearance. Not only 
is this worth while from the point of view of the farm home 
itself, but it is an important part of the publicity and adver- 
tising which the condition of the homestead gives to its 
owner whether he will or no. 

The Plan of the Fann-House 

The farm-house should be adapted to the needs and the 
comfort of its owners. It should not be pretentious and 
expensive beyond the financial ability of the farm owner. 
Neither should it be diminutive, inconvenient and unsuited 
to the surroundings of a successful farm. The farm-house 
should first of all be comfortable and attractive. There 
is little excuse in this day for building houses that are ugly 
and repellent, for even moderate priced buildings can be 
planned to look well and at the same time be convenient 
and home-like. Nearly every magazine published to-day 
has its home page where plans and suggestions are freely 
given for houses of every type and suited to every need ; 
all private and state art commissions, specialists and effi- 
ciency experts are lending valuable aid to home builders. 



652 AGRICULTURE AND 

Planning the house. — The farm-house should be 
planned for convenience, for there is much hard work to 
be done by the housewife and every care should be taken 
to save her time and strength. A well ordered arrange- 
ment of rooms, stairs with easy treads, generous porches 
and windows and doors that easily open and shut may 
appear to be minor matters, but it is after all out of such 
little things that the convenience and attractiveness of a 
house must come. 

The farm-house should have a well lighted basement 
with cement floor, a fully equipped laundry with water- 
pipes and stationary tubs connected with a drain, to save 
the lifting and carrying of water. Suitable vegetable bins 
should be provided and so arranged that they may be ven- 
tilated and cooled from the outside. A bathroom is a prac- 
tical necessity on the farm as well as for the city house and 
can be supplied with water from an elevated windmill, silo, 
or cistern tank. A toilet and lavatory should also be a part 
of this equipment. The telephone now belongs to the farm 
as much as to the town, and electric lighting and power, 
even, are now being made available to many farms through 
the extension of trolley lines. All these things can be had 
without great cost. They require chiefly a spirit of enter- 
prise and a little careful planning. 

Modern equipment for the house. — The wise farmer 
buys good machinery to till his land and harvest his crops. 
His wife should also have the advantage of modern labor- 
saving devices in her work. The best of cooking utensils, 
fruit and vegetable canning outfits, automatically heated flat 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



653 



irons, cleaning devices, hardwood floors, rugs and other 
similar helps to good housekeeping should not be wanting. 
For such equipment now belongs to every modern home, 
and will save much time and drudgery. 




Plan for water-pressure system. 



The Farm Kitchen 

A well organized kitchen is really the center of the 
farm home ; for here is the workshop where is carried on 
the greater part of the work of the household. The 
kitchen should be conveniently located with reference to 
other rooms and should be so planned that the necessary 
equipment of stove, cupboards and sink may fit into their 
appointed places. The eight million women working in the 
farm kitchens of this country are among the hardest toilers 
to be found in any occupation. They spend long hours, 
seven days every week and fifty-two weeks every year in 



654 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 655 

this home workshop. It is only right, therefore, that the 
kitchen should be made as convenient and attractive as pos- 
sible. 

The modern kitchen. — The farm kitchen, when well 
organized, is supplied with running water, a good sink with 
drainage, a movable kitchen cabinet and plenty of table 
space. It has whatever cupboards are necessary and pro- 
vides an oil or gas heater for summer use with a fireless 
cooker to save fuel and the overheating of the room in 
the summer-time. With a windmill available or with a 
gasoline engine for pumping, an elevated tank may be made 
use of to supply a water system for the house and barns, 
equally serviceable for every practical purpose with the city 
water systems. By connecting the water pipes to the range 
or furnace, hot water may be made available and avoid 
hundreds of unnecessary steps in the doing of the house- 
hold work. The kitchen should be so planned as to obtain 
light and ventilation from two directions. This cross ven- 
tilation is essential if the smoke and odors are to be carried 
away and if the room is to be relieved of excessive heat. 

Small things of great import. — The kitchen floor, 
walls and ceiling should be as plain and free from cracks, 
ridges, moldings or any form or ornamentation as possi- 
ble. The floor should be of hardwood, or better still, cov- 
ered with linoleum, so that it is easily kept clean without 
much hard scrubbing. If tiled walls are too expensive the 
kitchen walls may be covered with oilcloth or the plaster 
painted with enamel paint which will stand washing and 
does not easily collect dust. The kitchen in common with 



656 



AGRICULTURE AND 









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THE FARMING BUSINESS 



657 



the rest of the farm-house should be thoroughly screened 
against flies. It should have all of the minor conveniences 
that will help in the rapid and effective doing of a day's 



P/3nTev 




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iSi-ovOt 



Another inconvenient arrangement. 



work. The farmer who demands modern machines and 
implements for the carrying on of his work should not ask 
his wife to economize unnecessarily in these small matters 
that mean so much of time and strength. 



658 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
THE HOME GROUNDS AND WOOD LOT 

NO home place is complete without trees, plants, flow- 
ers and shrubs. Even with costly and pretentious 
buildings a homestead may look barren and inhospitable 
from lack of the decorative and comfortable effect of shade 
trees, groves, climbing vines and blossoming plants. One 
should learn not only to make his farm pay but to make it 
interesting and attractive. 

Beautifying the Home Grounds 

The house lot and lawn of the farm home can be made 
especially beautiful and interesting. For there is more room 
on the farm than in the town or city, and the trees and 
plants needed for its decoration will cost but little except a 
reasonable amount of care. Well kept grounds add a great 
deal to the market value of a farm, and contribute even 
more to the beauty and comfort of the home. 

Plan for setting. — To produce the best results, the 
setting of trees and shrubbery should follow some complete 
and well devised plan. The efifect of the most beautiful 
vegetation may be lost by careless or improper placing. 
When used for decoration or shade, trees should usually 
not be set in rows, unless along a driveway or boundary 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 659 

line ; nor should they be so blocked together that they shut 
off the view of the house. They may stand as single iso- 
lated specimens, or in irregular groups. Trees often are 
placed too near the house, thus excluding the sun and caus- 
ing dampness. 

Shrubs, likewise, appear to best advantage when set 
in clumps, or irregularly to make a border for the lawn. 
Climbing vines can be used to screen porches, cover garden 
fences, hide unsightly sheds and outbuildings, or clamber 
over stumps, rocks or barren banks. 

Selecting varieties. — One can select from an almost 
endless variety of trees, shrubs, flowers and vines. Each 
variety has its own peculiar individuality, which should be 
studied and known before the selection is made. A plant, 
once given a place on the grounds, becomes a permanent 
part of the home place, and should therefore be chosen with 
as much care as are our friends. 

Shade trees should be hardy, well-shaped, broad leafed, 
grow to a good size, and attract no troublesome insects. 
Elms, maples, oaks, ash, basswood, catalpa, locusts, nut 
and fruit trees, and, in the South, magnolias, orange, pecan, 
sycamore, the redbud and live oak, are among the favorites. 

Shrubs and flowers are to be selected both for their 
foliage and flowers. With care, provision should be made 
for the appearance of blossoms during each month of the 
summer, and for an attractive variety of foliage through- 
out the season. 

Flowering plants. — The plan for the home grounds 
should include a few beds of flowering plants. INIost of 



660 



AGRICULTURE AND 



these may be perennials, which will require but little care 
after the bed has become well established. With the addi- 
tion of a few varieties of hardy bulbs for annual planting, 
beautiful effects can be produced with practically no cost 
and with the expenditure of very little time. 

The lawn. — Nothing adds more to the appearance of 
a homestead than a well kept lawn. Lawns should sur- 




Tlie slirubs and trees add mucli to this old colouial farm borne. 



round the house, and as much care is needed in the plan- 
ning of them on the sides and rear of the house as is 
required in what is commonly referred to as the "front 
yard." 

The lawn must be close-mown during the early part 
of the summer if it is to produce a pleasing effect. If 
allowed to grow up, the grass becomes tufted and coarse. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 661 

besides looking ragged and unkempt. Farm stock should 
not be pastured on the lawn. Their trampling will produce 
unevenness that interferes with the lawnmower, and the 
plants, shrubbery and young trees are sure to suffer from 
being browsed. 




A good lot of Hampshire Downs and a fine wood lot. 

I'lic Farm Wood Lot 
Every farm place should have its own wood lot. It 
costs little to start, requires but little care after the first 
year or two, and yields large returns. 



662 AGRICULTURE AND 

Uses of the wood lot. — Poles, timbers and posts are 
constantly needed on every farm. When there is no wood 
lot to supply them, they must either be bought, or the farm 
suffer for their lack. Lumber, posts and timbers of 
every sort, as well as the nut and maple sugar products are 
becoming more expensive from year to year as our forests 
are being depleted. Fire-wood raised on the farm costs 
very much less than if bought in the market, and so scarce 
is it becoming in many regions that it can not be had at 
all unless produced at home. 

The wood lot should be so placed as to serve for a 
windbreak for the farm buildings, and at the same time 
add to the beauty and value of the homestead. When the 
trees are grown they afford welcome shade for both man 
and beast, contributing both to their comfort and profit. 

Birds are attracted to the wood lot, and from this shel- 
ter make sallies out upon the harmful insects that prey on 
crops or gardens. From the friendly tree-tops they also 
pour out their tribute of song to sweeten the life and ac- 
tivities of all in the neighborhood. 

The location and size of the wood lot. — It may not 
always be desirable to plant a large wood lot near the build- 
ings. When such is the case, low wet places, steep hillsides, 
or small irregular pieces of ground not suitable for culti- 
vation may often be utilized. 

From one-half an acre to several acres of ground can 
profitably be set to trees on a fair-sized farm. While the 
returns are not immediate as with other crops, yet the profit 
is reasonably sure in the end. Many far-sighted farmers 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



663 



are now providing for the fence posts and timbers they 
will need ten or twenty years hence by setting out and 
caring for trees in a wood lot. It is estimated that Minne- 
sota farmers set out a million trees in a year and in 
many other regions the movement is quite as marked. 

Varieties of trees for the wood lot. — It is impossible 
to recommend definite varieties of trees for the wood lot, 
since this depends on the region and the use to be made of 




Usiiis the wood lot for social center work, scliool picuies and 
club festivals, near Dows, Iowa. 



the timber. Some prefer to plant the rapid-growing soft 
wood trees, while others are willing to wait longer for the 
harder woods to grow. An excellent plan is to plant a 
number of varieties. Not only will this allow a mixture of 
the slow and the fast growing trees, but provide a variety 
of timber suitable for different purposes of utility and com- 
fort for the farm. 

From the eastern to the middle western states the fa- 



664 



AGRICULTURE AND 



vorite trees seem to be the different varieties of maple, 
elm, oak, locust, ash, fir, basswood, hickory, walnut, box- 
elder, Cottonwood, yellow poplar, catalpa, chestnut, syca- 
more, etc. 

In the drier regions such as western Kansas and Ne- 
braska, Oklahoma, Texas and Colorado, it is difficult to start 
successfully some of these varieties. Among the best 
drought resisting trees are the black locust, green ash, Osage 
orange and Russian mulberry. In the southern and far 




Good homes for yoiu' bird friends. 

western states practically all varieties suitable to the North 
and East can be grown and many others besides. 

Starting the wood lot. — The w^ood lot may be started, 
in the case of most trees, either by planting the seed, or 
by setting out young trees. A common method of starting 
a grove of hardy catalpa, for example, is to prepare the 
seed bed as if for corn. Catalpa seed is then planted, and 
the field cultivated for several years. The young trees are 
sometimes cut back to the ground after two years of growth 



THE FAR^IING BUSINESS 



665 



for the purpose of producing straighter and more sturdy 
trees. The growth of the tree is not retarded by this 
process. 

A seed bed for trees can easily be started, and the trees 
transplanted to the desired positions when the seedlings are 
from one to three years old. A small seed bed will supply 
trees for a large wood lot. 




Compact arrangement of barns, silos and cribs. 



Tree Enemies 

While most of the common trees are not subject to a 
large number of enemies, yet they must have reasonable 
care and protection if they are to thrive. 

Farm animals. — One of the most common mistakes 
in starting young trees is to allow them to be exposed to 
stock. Cattle, sheep or hogs are sure to injure the trees 
by grazing upon the leaves and branches, by trampling 
them, or by rubbing against them. The wood lot should 
be fenced, and all stock excluded until the trees are well 
grown. Horses should never be tied to trees. 



666 AGRICULTURE AND 

Weeds and sod. — Young trees are as easily injured as 
any other plant by weeds or grass. ]\Iany people seem to 
think that because large trees can take care of themselves 
against these enemies young trees can do the same. But 
trees once hindered in their growth by the choking of weeds 
or sod will never fully recover. 

Insect and fungous enemies. — Shade and timber trees 
are, on the whole, less subject to insect and fungous attacks 
than fruit trees. Yet occasionally even the most hardy trees 
succumb to such enemies. The elm, one of the healthiest 
of our trees, has recently suffered greatly in certain regions. 
The chestnut has also been seriously afflicted with a bark 
disease. Whole forests of fir have died in southern locali- 
ties. Even the catalpa is subject to a fungous trouble at 
certain stages of its growth. Whenever a considerable 
number of trees in a locality show signs of disease, an 
expert should be consulted and his directions followed. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 667 



CHAPTER XL 
FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MECHANICS 

Importance of Implements and Tools 

ONE of the most important and interesting phases of 
agriculture is the study of farm implements, their 
origin, history, utility, proper care and up-keep. 

Tillage and tools. — Good crops and large profits usu- 
ally depend upon wise management and proper tillage ; and 
good tillage requires the use of tools adapted to the soil, 
the particular crops, and the condition under which the 
farming is done. It is poor economy to farm with unfit 
tools, or implements in poor repair. On the other hand 
it is possible to have too large an amount of money in- 
vested in farm implements and machinery. A number of 
the larger farm machines, such as corn harvesters, thresh- 
ing machines or shredders, can be owned cooperatively in 
a community and made to do the work of four to ten farm- 
ers instead of one. This will reduce both the first cost and 
the up-keep. 

The care of machinery. — It is generally considered 
that a machine kept in good repair, and well housed when 
not in use, will last as long doing the work of five farmers 
as a machine owned by a single farmer and doing but one- 
fifth of the work, if neglected and allowed to stand out- 



668 



AGRICULTURE AND 




THE FARMING BUSINESS 



669 



of-doors in rain, snow and all kinds of weather when idle. 
There is no better test of the progressiveness and good 
management of a farm than the way the farm tools and 
machinery are treated. 

The Farmer as a Mechanic 

Every farmer should, at least to a degree, be a me- 
chanic. This is not with a view to manufacturing imple- 




Tbe auto saves milk from souring and churning. 

ments, or even to the building of his own barns and houses, 
but to enable him to keep the implements, barns and houses 
constantly in good repair. 

The farm workshop. — A great many dollars can be 
saved on the average farm if the farmer has equipped his 
farm with a little workshop and a number of the necessary 
repair tools. A loose bolt, a broken rivet, a loosened board, 
or a brace out of position can easily be repaired by a prac- 



670 



AGRICULTURE AND 



tical farmer, while if it is neglected it may result in greater 
breakage, with the consequent loss of time and money. A 
large number of minor pieces of farm equipment, such as 
watering and feeding troughs, feed racks, seed trays, test 
boxes, fireless cookers, bins, shelving, wagon boxes and 
hog racks can profitably be made in the farm shop. 



3 



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y 


t; 


^^^^ 





little door in the big 
e eaves needless exertion. 
I will like it 




The heavy bolt ballasts the 
button so it's always bori- 
zontai and holds door shut 



Th^ cha 

the poBt and the weiahl of 

the gate tben closes it 



There are always plenty of rainy days and occasionally 
periods of time when the rush and heavy work of the fields 
have been completed and an opportunity given for repair 
work and the making of practical necessities belonging to 
the farm. 

Manual training and the farm boy. — A farmer boy's 
education has no more important part than training in the 
use of farm tools and the application of his education to the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



671 



ordinary mechanical work needed about barns, fences and 
machines. This phase of training should be correlated with 
the manual-training courses in the public school. The man- 
ual training learned by the farmer boy should relate to farm 
needs. Every farmer boy should master the practical prin- 
ciples of painting, the mixing and use of paint, and the 

Excellent Stable and Feeding Devices 




These trap • door putte 
boards let manure fall inl 
■ bclov 



This dairy swilchboar< 
protects the milker fron 
the reslleae cow's tail 




A crib that's easy to get 
ccrD from for feedinff. It's 
really an immense hopper 




The gate over this splash- 
proof hog trough swings 
forward and hack 



Door-siU wheelbarrow 
bridge made of two boards 
and two leather straps 



Pour swill down the hopper 
and grcedv hogs will waste 
less. SlaKe it down 



relation of color schemes. For the use of paint not only 
beautifies, but conserves buildings, fences and machinery. 
The use of cement. — Cement has come to be one of 
the most important economies of a farm homestead. Every 
boy will want to know something about the making of con- 
crete, and the proper methods of mixing and surfacing. He 
should understand the making of molds, the laying of foun- 
dation for a cement structure, and the application of cement 



672 



AGRICULTURE AND 



to the construction of silos, water-tanks, fence posts, 
bridges, feeding floors, etc. 

Rope Tying and Splicing 

One of the elementary 3'et most interesting divisions of 
farm mechanics is rope tying and splicing. The place of 




Teaching colt to lead by ropes. Note the three points of control 
— head, body and rear at the same time. 

the rope in farm management is very much the same as the 
relation of the nail to the builder. Ropes are also widely 
used in other occupations, and the lives of many workmen 
often depend on the strength of a rope or the security of a 
knot. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 673 

The uses of ropes. — Long before farm machinery was 
invented or useful implements invented, rope tying and 
splicing held a very important relation to the work of agri- 
culture. The first harness was made of rope. Joints and 
splicings were made with rope long before the day of bolts, 
rivets and other metal devices for the joining of parts in 
farm machinery. In spite of the fact that we have to-day 
all manner of improved farm machinery we still need the 
convenience and economy made possible by the use of the 
rope in knot tying and splicing. 

Some knots useful on the farm. — Some of the prac- 
tical rope knots are as follows : the clove-hitch ; bowline ; 
never-slip noose ; slipknot ; Beckett hitch ; reef-knot, or 
square knot, which never slips but is always easily untied ; 
the two half-hitches often used for the halter-hitch ; weav- 
er's knot for the joining of small cords ; fixed knot ; anchor 
bend ; timber-hitch, which can be easily untied but never 
slips; and the carrick-bend for joining ropes. 

Making the right knot. — Dififerent knots are required 
for different purposes. A simple knot that will serve in 
one use is not adapted to another; knots that will untie 
under certain conditions may be impossible to untie under 
other conditions.* 

Principles of knot tying. — Certain principles apply to 
the tying of all knots. The efficiency of the knot does 
not depend on the number of turns or hitches, but on the 



*A most interesting little book on rope knotting and 
splicing is one published by David McKay, Philadelphia, SO 
cents. A number of the drawings here shown are taken by per- 
mission of the company from this set. 



674 



AGRICULTURE AND 



position of the "nip." The bend or hitch must be so formed 
that the part of the rope under strain nips securely some 
portion of the knot, either against itself or the object to 




Learn to "do" these knots nnd roiie siiliciugs. 

which it is attached. The nip of each different knot should 
be studied. 

Rope materials. — While a large part of our rope and 
cordage is made of hemp, many other materials are now 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 675 

coming to enter into their manufacture. The coil rope is 
made from cocoanut fiber, which is used because it is so 
Hght and pliable. This rope is useful for warps, rocket 
lines, life-buoy lines, nets, etc. Manila grass is adapted to 
the construction of coarse ropes and hawsers requiring 
great strength and hard wear, and where tar can not be used 
on the rope. 

Strips of hides are used for ropes where great strength 
and pliability with small diameter are needed. Cotton is 
employed for ropes and cordage used for fancy work of 
all kinds. Wire is used for rope making whenever very 
great strength is needed, as in connection with dredging 
machinery, suspension bridge cables and the like. 

Rope-making. — Yarns are formed by twisting the 
hemp right-handed, while the "strands" are made by twist- 
ing or laying up the yarns left-handed, and the rope by 
laying it up in strands right-handed. Three small ropes 
laid up left-handed form a cable-laid rope. Four-stranded 
ropes are laid round a heart. In using hemp for rope mak- 
ing, great care should be exercised not to twist the hemp 
more than necessary, as this weakens the rope. A three- 
stranded rope will bear a greater strain in comparison to its 
size than any other rope of the same material. This ac- 
counts for the fact that most of our rope is made of three 
strands. Cable-laid and four-stranded ropes are as a rule 
about one-fifth weaker. 



676 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XLI 
THE AUTOMOBILE AND THE FARMER 

THE automobile is one of the most recent factors to 
be considered in the planning and administering of a 
farm. Not so many years ago the automobile was looked 
upon as a plaything of the rich, or at least as an extrava- 
gance and a luxury which the average man could not af- 
ford. It was also considered notoriously unreliable ; 
engine or tire trouble was so common as to render trips 
very uncertain when dependent upon this means of trans- 
portation. Now, however, this is all changed about. The 
automobile has long since proved its practical usefulness, 
and far more machines are now in commercial use than 
are employed for pleasure alone. 

Farmers buy the most cars. — The automobile has 
passed the experimental stage. It is a remarkable fact that 
the state of Iowa, which is almost entirely agricultural in 
its industries, and which has practically no large cities, leads 
in the number of automobiles In proportion to the popula- 
tion, having one automobile to each thirteen persons. 
Other agricultural regions of the country also own large 
numbers of automobiles. When it is thus seen that the 
farming regions lead the cities and the other industrial 
centers in the purchase and use of these machines, it is 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



Q7 




678 AGRICULTURE AND 

evidence that they possess solid utility and practical 
value to the farm. 

Uses of the Automobile 

The automobile is daily finding new uses. Its coming 
has, within reasonable limits, eliminated distance and isola- 
tion for the farmer. It is a great time saver. The five or 
ten mile drive to town for supplies or marketing is no longer 
dreaded, nor does it take half a day from the work of the 
farm as formerly. Not only will the automobile cover the 
road in one-fourth the time required for a team, but its 
easy and comfortable riding makes a trip to town or to the 
neighbors a rest and recreation rather than a wearisome 
task. Thus two birds can be killed with one stone by com- 
bining pleasure with business. 

Saving on horses. — ^The automobile saves horses. The 
farm teams, heavily built and chunky as they are, are ill 
adapted to traveling on the road. Furthermore, their habits 
and training are only for the field, with slow gait and heavy 
load. Most farm horses when put under saddles or hitched 
to the light rig and put upon the road are out of their 
elements and easily tire. The automobile allows the entire 
energy of the horses to be devoted during the working 
season to the labor of the fields. 

With the automobile at hand the farmer is relatively 
independent as to his trading and marketing. He does not 
have to buy at the nearest town nor sell such produce there 
as can be conveyed in his automobile. If he finds that he 
can secure a better deal at a more distant point, a difference 



THE FAR^riNG BUSINESS 



679 




680 AGRICULTURE AND 

of ten miles in distance will not count, as this is a matter of 
but a half-hour's drive. 

Driving farm machinery. — Various attachments are 
now being devised to use the automobile engine in driving 
machinery on the farm. Small electric motors can be driven 
by the engine and used to pump water, churn, grind feed, 
run the fanning mill, washing machines or do any other one 
of the light mechanical jobs demanded around the farm 
home. While it may not concern the farmer from the 
practical point of view, it is interesting to note that attach- 
ments are now in use even to run a moving-picture lantern 
by an automobile. The Louisiana State University uses 
such a machine in its extension service among farmers and 
rural schools, and in promoting the agricultural activities 
among the boys and girls of the state. 

Adding to pleasure and recreation. — Not the least of 
the important functions of the automobile as a part of the 
farm equipment is in providing pleasure, recreation and 
change for the members of the family. Trips can be en- 
joyed in the evening after the farm work is done, on 
holidays or at slack times, which would be out of the 
question without this rapid means of travel. Young and 
old can broaden their experience as well as education and 
come into touch with many interests and activities which 
otherwise would be impossible. Lectures, entertainments, 
clubs and social functions in neighboring towns or com- 
munities are easily within the reach of all members of the 
family. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 681 

Possible Dangers from the Use of the Automobile 

While the automobile has become a permanent institu- 
tion and an important factor in agriculture, no small 
danger lurks in its use. The danger here referred to is not 
that which comes from accidents in the driving of the car. 
The mechanism of the automobile is now so thoroughly 
perfected that with careful driving and reasonable atten- 
tion to the up-keep of a machine, there is less danger from 
its use than there is in driving horses. 

Danger to home and community life. — The very fact 
that the automobile offers so many opportunities and makes 
possible so much broader a life on the farm carries with it 
an inherent possibility of danger. There is danger that the 
home life may be dissipated to no small degree. The 
fascination of the car and driving is likely to take the 
family much from home, or at least to break into the home 
circle so that evenings, Sundays and other leisure times find 
the members of the family widely scattered and in this 
way make it less possible for cultivating habits of home 
life and the consequent cementing of home ties, such as 
made the poet sing Home, Sweet Home. 

There is also a possible danger to the local institutions, 
such as church and school. The farmer who owns a car 
no longer hesitates to drive to a neighboring town or city to 
church if he so desires. The country church to which he 
was, before the advent of the automobile, in a sense com- 
mitted because of its nearness, is everywhere feeling the 
effects of the tendency to desert neighborhood interests. 



682 AGRICULTURE AND 

Not only does the farmer pass his country church by in 
going to the town church, but there is often a temptation 
not to go to church at all on Sunday, the preference being 
to take the time in driving. The same danger may threaten 
the local school. Where roads are good it is not impossible, 
during a greater part of the year, to take the children to a 
school four or five miles away and go after them in the 
evening without any great loss of time. In not a few lo- 
calities this tendency has greatly weakened the local or 
neighborhood school. In many instances this has pre- 
vented the consolidation of small schools in the open coun- 
try, city schools have admitted the rural children and made 
in a measure unnecessary the new and better school at 
home. 

There is also some danger that the automobile owner 
will neglect the general neighborhood interests in view of 
the wider range made possible through the use of his car. 
He can now drive to the county seat town, he can attend 
county or district fairs, the farmers' institutes in neighbor- 
ing places, and go about within a radius of twenty-five or 
fifty miles as rnuch as he will. All this is fine and in no 
sense to be condemned. On the other hand, there are cer- 
tain local interests which should not suffer because of the 
use of the automobile. Neighborhood enterprises should 
not be neglected, even with all these wider opportunities. 
All the "dangers" suggested can easily be eliminated and 
there can be substituted in their stead only advantages at 
home and community welfare, if owners will invest the 
opportunities properly. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 683 

Deciding about Buying an Automobile 

Shall the farmer buy an automobile? This is the ques- 
tion confronting thousands of farmers to-day. Of course 
no dogmatic answer can be given, any more than offhand 
advice as to whether a farmer shall buy a reaper or a hay- 
loader. These are questions which each farmer must de- 
cide with a view to the size of his farm, the number of 
farm enterprises, and various other questions entermg into 
farm organization and administration. 

Factors to be taken into account. — The wise farmer 
will, therefore, approach the automobile question as he will 
that of buying any other machine for his farm. He will 
not be influenced by the glamour and distinction of owning 
a car, but will calmly figure its cost, the interest on the 
money, the expense for repairs and up-keep and the prob- 
able depreciation. He will put against this the use that he 
can get out of the car, both from the point of view of 
business utility as well as pleasure and recreation. He can 
figure the practical utility phase more closely than the 
pleasure phase, and yet the latter must not be ignored ; for 
the farmer as well as any other worker is justified in taking 
the point of view that life is more than making a living. 
And while making a living he will, if he has a true phi- 
losophy of life, try at the same time to secure all the reason- 
able pleasure and satisfaction that are available for himself 
and his family. 

The type of car to buy. — The type of car best adapted 
to the farm will also depend upon individual needs and con- 
ditions. The farm car which is to be put into practical use 



684 AGRICULTURE AND 

will be exposed to the weather and hard road conditions 
more than the city car, and must therefore be of the rugged 
enduring type. The average farmer can hardly afford to 
invest a large sum of money in a car merely for the reputa- 
tion or even the appearance of the machine. This does not 
mean that the farmer should buy a cheap or cheap-looking 
machine. In automobile buying as in other forms of pur- 
chasing, there is a happy medium between the bargain 
counter and extravagance. The Iowa farmers, already re- 
ferred to as leading the country in ownership of automo- 
biles, have shown by their purchases that they believe in 
the economy and efficiency of a relatively low priced car. 
Approximately seventy-live per cent, of the cars owned by 
Iowa farmers cost less than seven hundred and fifty dol- 
lars. 

The Care of Automobiles 

The automobile is one machine that it does not pay to 
neglect, and the farmer who is not able or willing to pro- 
vide a good garage for his machine had better not buy one. 
Freedom from engine and tire trouble as well as various 
forms of breakage will depend in a large degree upon the 
intelligence and care with which the machine is kept. Few 
owners of automobiles are capable of adjusting, cleaning 
and caring for certain of the more complicated and delicate 
parts of the machine. On the other hand, any one who is 
sufficiently familiar with machinery to run the various im- 
plements of the farm can make sure that the general 
mechanism of his automobile is in good condition, with no 
nuts, screws or connections loose. He can see that the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 685 

mechanism is sufficiently oiled and cleaned from mud. He 
can keep the car painted, worn parts replaced, and every- 
thing else done which is needed to make the car safe and 
save it from rapid deterioration. 

The garage.— Wherever possible, the garage should 
be so constructed as to be free from freezing. This will 
save on the use of expensive anti-freezing mixtures in cold 
weather, and will prevent annoyance from frozen radiators 
and starting troubles that follow in the wake of freezing. 
The up-keep of tires will also be less if they are not allowed 
to stand frozen through the winter. The garage should be 
fire-proof, and no gasoline should be kept inside the build- 
ing. For in spite of the highly developed mechanism of the 
modern automobile which makes it relatively safe to handle, 
there are possibilities of fire around a machine and no risks 
should be taken which may involve not only the car and 
garage, but also the barns and stock adjacent. It is better 
to have the garage separate from other buildings wherever 
possible. 

It does not pay to run an automobile with heavy carbon 
deposits in the cylinders, with ill adjusted carbureter, with 
an oiling system that needs cleansing, or with bearings that 
need repacking with grease. Neither does it pay to drive 
tires without necessary repairs when the mileage could be 
greatly increased by a very small expenditure at the vul- 
canizing shop. With all its perfection the automobile is a 
very complex machine and must be handled with the high- 
est intelligence and care if it is to maintain its efficiency and 
yield satisfaction in place of annoyance. 



686 AGRICULTURE AND 

Anti-freezing mixtures, — In order to save freezing of 
the radiator in cold weather it is necessary to use an anti- 
freezing mixture. There are various mixtures available, a 
common one being the following : 

For 5 degrees below zero use: 

Wood alcohol 15 per cent. 

Glycerine 15 per cent. 

Water 70 per cent. 

For 10 degrees below zero use: 

Wood alcohol 18 per cent. 

Glycerine 18 per cent. 

Water 64 per cent. 

Some manufacturers advise against the use of glycerine, 
employing only alcohol and water. 

Driving the Car 

Running an automobile is an art which is acquired 
without any great difficulty, but it must be acquired. It is 
not safe to assume that because one is familiar with farm 
machinery he can therefore manage a car without instruc- 
tion or practise. Over-confidence has ruined many a 
machine and cost many lives. On the other hand, lack of 
confidence is as serious an error as over-confidence. For, 
while over-confidence may lead to carelessness and the 
taking of unnecessary risks, lack of confidence often causes 
one to "lose his head" in an emergency. 

Mastering the car. — On purchasing a new car, the 
owner should deliberately set out to study it. He must 
learn it part by part until he is entirely at home with it. 
He should understand thoroughly such terms as foot and 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 687 

emergency brakes, gear shift, clutch pedal, oil gage, accel- 
erator, starter, spark lever, throttle, crank case, speedometer, 
magneto, carbureter, and various others. He must know the 
relation of the various gears to different roads and grades, 
and learn to judge the working of the engine from its sound. 
He should master the lighting and ignition system, and be 
able to locate any of the minor troubles that occasionally 
arise. He should study the removal and replacing of tires, 
even going through the process in practise before actual 
need arises. Above all, he should read and reread the in- 
struction book that comes with his car, and follozv it until 
he becomes so familiar with the operating of the machine 
that he no longer requires instruction. 

The care of tires. — The intelligent user of an automo- 
bile will remember that tires are the expensive part of the 
up-keep of a machine, usually costing from two to four 
times as much as the gasoline. Running tires with im- 
proper inflation is poor economy. A soft tire wears much 
more rapidly than a hard tire. The general rule that twenty 
pounds of pressure should be used for each inch of tire 
diameter should be rigidly followed under all ordinary con- 
ditions. An air-pressure gage should be a part of every 
driver's equipment. The life of tires is greatly shortened 
by allowing the machine to stand out in the hot sun. The 
freezing of tires, as already suggested, also tends to reduce 
their mileage. 

Safety first. — No one who is not willing to put safety 
before speed or daring should be allowed to drive a car. 
For he endangers not only his own life, but the lives of all 



688 AGRICULTURE AND 

who are upon the highways or streets. Probably more 
than four accidents out of five could be prevented by the 
simple use of ordinary caution and common sense. Refusal 
to speed, slowing down at corners and on down grades, 
and stopping to look and listen at railway crossings would 
save most of the lives annually lost in automobile accidents. 

Women and AiitoHnohiles 

Most cars have now been made so simple and reliable 
that women may learn to drive and manage the automobile 
quite as easily as men. The managing device of the average 
automobile responds so easily that a woman soon learns to 
manage this machine with as much certainty as the sewing- 
machine, typewriter, or washing-machine. In fact it is, as 
a rule, safer and easier for women to drive the automobile 
than to drive a team of horses. It is a common sight on 
every country road as well as city street, to see large num- 
bers of women driving all sizes and makes of automobiles. 
As the cars are now constructed the chauffeur is not a 
necessity and most people enjoy the "fine art" of driving 
their own car. 

The demountable rim makes it possible for women to 
cope .successfully with tire troubles on the road, which in 
former years was one of the discouraging factors in con- 
nection with women driving automobiles. The spark plug 
pump is also an essential thing in connection with the 
care of the tires on the road, and dispenses entirely with 
the old "strong-arm" hand pump. The woman's car should 



THE FARIMING BUSINESS , 689 

also be equipped with a self-starter to save the necessity of 
cranking. 

The Automobile and Good Roads 

While the automobile is hard on dirt roads, there can 
be no doubt that it has done more for the betterment of 
public highways in the United States than all other factors 
combined. 

The automobile brings good roads. — Good roads are 
an essential to satisfactory use of automobiles. Because of 
this fact, the manufacturers and users of automobiles have 
been good roads promoters in every section of the country. 
They have not only given of their influence, but have con- 
tributed large sums of money for road building. 

The farm secures advantage either directly or indirectly 
from every mile of roadway improved for the use of auto- 
mobiles. The farmer can market his produce to better 
advantage and at less expense over the improved highway. 
He can save his time and that of his teams. He can drive 
his own car or his motor truck over the solid roads. And 
all this goes finally to increase the value of his land and 
buildings, and adds to the sum total of his family com- 
forts. 

Gasoline Farm Tractors 

The automobile truck has for a number of years been 
a familiar sight in the cities. It has now displaced trucking 
by teams in the business of many of the largest concerns in 
all parts of the United States. Heavy tractor engines, both 
steam and gasoline, have also become more or less common 
on the larger farms 'of the West and Northwest. They are 



690 AGRICULTURE AND 

also to be found in smaller numbers in the richer farming 
regions of the Mississippi Valley. It is only recently, how- 
ever, that the lighter farm tractors have been developed and 
they are by no means yet common, even in regions where 
the heavier tractors are well known. 

Farm tractors have become practicable. — It is, never- 
theless, probable that the next great step in advance in gas- 
oline power for the farm lies in the direction of these lighter 
tractors. A number of manufacturers are now manufac- 
turing farm tractors which are being sold at such a figure 
as to be practicable upon the moderate-sized farm. Recent 
demonstrations have shown such tractors having the neces- 
sary amount of horse-power, capable of drawing any ordi- 
nary farm machinery and costing from three to seven hun- 
dred dollars. 

It is evident that if these machines can be made prac- 
ticable for a wide range of farm work, they will have an 
important place upon thousands of farms throughout the 
country; for at the price now ruling for horses, a good 
farm team will cost approximately as much as the gasoline 
tractor. The team will depreciate in value as rapidly as 
the machine and horses go on eating whether they are at 
work or not. The gasoline tractor ofifers another advan- 
tage over horses in that during rush times the machine can 
be worked from earliest morning until late at night with- 
out weariness or exhaustion. In fact, by using two shifts of 
drivers and a headlight it is possible in emergencies to 
carry on most farm work at night or during any part of the 
twenty-four hours. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 691 

Not to displace the horse. — It is not to be thought, 
however, that the farm tractor will altogether displace 
horses. There are many farm uses which can not possibly 
be taken by the machine. On every farm of reasonable 
size it will certainly be necessary to have at least one team, 
no matter if the tractor is given the greater part of the 
work with the farm machinery. In the case of truck farm- 
ing or with smaller farms, it is possible that several farm- 




Popularity of the automobile. 

ers could together own a tractor with which to do the 
major part of their farm work. 

The best that can be said at the present time is that the 
tractor, so far as the average farmer is concerned, is already 
past the experimental stage, and promises great things for 
the future. While the cautious farmer will not rush into 
the market and buy a tractor because it is highly adver- 
tised and recommended by its makers, he will, on the other 
hand, keep an open mind and not be so conservative as to 



692 AGRICULTURE AND 

fail to take advantage of higher efficiency and cheaper labor 
for his farm if these can be secured through the gasoline 
tractor. 

The Production of Automobiles 

Probably never before in the history of the world has 
so great an industry as that connected with the production, 
sale and repair of automobiles arisen in so short a time. 
A recent compilation of statistics suggests something of the 
magnitude of the business: 

Motor-Car Production in the United States 
(Passenger and Commercial) 



Year 


Number 


Value 


1899 


3,700 


$4,750,000 


1903 


11,000 


12,650,000 


1904 


21,700 


30,000,000 


1905 


25,000 


40,000,000 


1906 


34,000 


62,900,000 


1907 


44,000 


93,400,000 


1908 


85,000 


137,800,000 


1909 


126,500 


164,200,000 


1910 


187,000 


225.000,000 


1911 


210,000 


262,500,000 


1912 


378,000 


378,000,000 


1913 


485.000 


425,000,000 


1914 


515,000 


485,000,000 


1915 


703,527 


573,000,000 



Total for 14 years 2,125,900 $2,320,200,000 

Changes in price. — It is interesting to compare the 
average cost of the automobile from year to year and note 
that the present tendency is toward the lower priced cars. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



693 



The following table gives the 
estimate for the near future: 



trend since 1903 with an 













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; 
























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f 

1 
























i 






















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l.29« 

1.203 



Preparation for a Drive 

1. Investigate your gas and oil supply. Fill, if neccssarj\ 

2. Turn down all hard oil cups. 

3. Fill radiator with clean water (rain water is the best). 

4. Fill motor with oil until gage indicates "full." 

5. Test lights. 

6. Examine electrical connection. 

7. Add distilled water to battery for every 100 miles traveled. 

8. Pump up tires and test general pressure gage. 



Starting Car 

1. Place gear shift in neutral position before starting engine. 

2. Adjust spark and gas levers. 



694 AGRICULTURE AND 

3. Switch on electrical current. 

4. Start motor either by hand or starter. 

5. Adjust spark for running speed. 

6. Accelerate motor with foot accelerator until it runs 

smoothly. 

7. Press clutch pedal and shift gear to low. 

8. Let in clutch pedal slowly and start car. 

9. Press clutch pedal and shift to intermediate gear. 
10. Press clutch and shift to high gear. 

If You Would Have Your Car Wear Long and Last Well 

1. Do not allow mud to dry on car. 

2. Use a good grade of body polish instead of washing fre- 

quently. 

3. Drain ofif lubricating oil from crank case every five hun- 

dred miles and wash out with kerosene. Fill with new 
oil. 

4. Follow religiously lubricating chart furnished with the 

car. 

5. Fill storage batteries with distilled water every two weeks. 

6. Release power when turning corners. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 695 



CHAPTER XLII 
ROAD BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE 

GOOD public roads are a prime necessity to successful 
agriculture and rural development. They add to the 
pleasure, profit, appearance and convenience of the farm. 

Importance of Public Roads 

There are in the United States about two million two 
hundred thousand miles of roads. Of this immense stretch 
of public highway, two million miles are classed as earth 
roads. This is to say that we have enough earth roads to 
circle the globe eighty times at the equator. 

Good roads and prosperity. — A study of history 
shows that every great and prosperous nation has built a 
good system of public roads, while primitive and unpro- 
gressive peoples are satisfied with poor roads. In our 
own country we find the most prosperous and progressive 
communities are those that are giving attention to the 
building and maintenance of good roads. 

Need for good roads. — Because good roads allow the 
farmer to haul his produce to market at a minimum of ex- 
pense in time and energy, he can make more profit out of 
his crops and stock. And the prosperity of the farmer 
is sure to increase the prosperity of all business and pro- 



696 



AGRICULTURE AND 








An eaitb road that needs iuiprovint 





Tlie same road improved. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 697 

fessional men and lower the cost of living to consumers. 
The success of the rural schools also depends much on im- 
proved roads. Especially is this true where the schools 
are being consolidated and the pupils transported to the 
school by the district. Rural mail delivery and the exten- 
sion of the parcel-post system further demand the improve- 
ment of the country roads. And, not least of importance, 
the making of country life interesting and attractive 
rests in no small degree on good roads, for they allow rural 
people easily to travel about the community for social as 
well as for business purposes. 

Growing movement for good roads. — In nearly every 
part of the United States there is at present a growing 
interest in good roads. New laws have been passed and 
millions of money appropriated to improve our roads. Com- 
mercial clubs, business concerns and other organizations are 
working together to encourage road building. And farm- 
ers are coming to demand improved roads for both teaming 
and the use of automobiles. 

Types of Roads 

Roads are generally considered under the following 
types: (1) earth roads, (2) sand clay roads, (3) gravel 
roads, (4) macadam roads, (5) bituminous macadam roads, 
(6) brick roads, and (7) concrete roads. The discussion 
in this chapter will be confined chiefly to the earth roads. 

Earth roads. — A chain is no stronger than its weak- 
est link; so, also, a road is no better than its poorest part. 
This means that the heaviest load that can be drawn over 



69S 



AGRICUT.TURE AND 



-j-jl'JXr-Zc::: j-3y^r3XT: 






?x:i 



;t.:l 



^b^l 



[ f , 



.d (Roman Morhcd), 



V^^^gaiUiliiianiiiliDJJ; --'^-Uiiiluiii^; 



■ ♦i'Siit 



Cross Section Mi^codom Rood, 1816. 



Cro5S Section of Modern MccodornfMas^echasGth) Rop(i 
with Vshaped foundoHon. 



:i^ 



Cross Section cf Modern Macodom ffoad. 



_J 



Cross-sections of different tj'pes of roads. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 699 

a public highway is the load that can be drawn up the 
steepest hill, through the worst ruts or mud-holes, or over 
the deepest stretch of sand. Hence the importance of low- 
ering or going around the hill, and eliminating the mud- 
holes, ruts and stretches of sand. 

TJic Location of a Road 

Public roads should, as far as possible, be located in 
straight lines. In hilly or mountainous regions, however, 
this rule must often give way to avoid the climbing of too 
heavy grades. 

Straightness and grade. — To lift a ton one foot high 
requires two thousand foot-tons of energy. On a road sur- 
face requiring one hundred pounds traction per ton, the 
same energy would roll the ton a horizontal distance of 
twenty feet. As far as the actual amount of energy used is 
concerned, therefore, to save one foot of grade, or up-hill 
climb, the road may be lengthened twenty feet. Public 
road grades should avoid a rise of more than six feet in a 
distance of one hundred feet. The hills should be cut down 
and the material used to fill in the hollows or else the road 
relocated to go around the hill and to avoid the steep grades. 

The necessity of sunlight. — Every road bed should 
have at least six hours of sunlight each day. Brush, trees 
or hedges that interfere with this requirement should be 
cleared away or sufficiently thinned out. On the other hand, 
suitable trees, shrubbery, grass, vines and flowers should 
be encouraged along the roadway, as they add both to the 
beauty of the road and the value of the farm. 



700 AGRICULTURE AND 

Drainage. — As a rule the only ditches needed for the 
proper drainage of the road can be made by the road 
grader. Deeper ditches are necessary where the adjoining 
land is low and level. In the building of culverts care 
should be taken to make them large enough to handle the 
overflow. They must also be sufficiently durable to resist 
the spring freshets and not be injured by the maximum 
flow caused by storm water. They should have sufficient 
slope so that the wash will keep them clean. All the spill- 
ways should be paved, if necessary, and the outlet and in- 
let protected by suitable head and wing walls. 

The Construction of Earth Roads 

Shaping the road bed. — Earth roads should not be 
made too wide. Twenty-four to thirty feet is sufficient un- 
less that road is to be macadamized or otherwise perma- 
nently improved. All roads should be properly crowned or 
rounded in order to aid them in disposing quickly of sur- 
face water. An earth road twenty- four feet wide should 
not be less than six inches nor more than twelve inches 
higher at the center than at each of the borders. The total 
fall from center to side should be about an inch to the foot. 

The work of construction. — The earth roads can best 
be crowned and ditched by a reversible road grader. The 
use of picks, shovels, scoops and plows should be avoided. 
One road machine with suffi-cient power and a good opera- 
tor will do the work of a large number of men and do it 
much better. Graders as a rule should be used when the 
soil is damp. This will make the soil pack well while dry- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 701 




I]nr(Ii rn;ul in Knus.i^ 




Concrete road uear Detroit. 



702 AGRICULTURE AND 

ing. If it is worked when dry and hard it takes more power 
to draw the machine and in addition the dry earth and dust 
will absorb and retain moisture and soon dsvelop ruts. All 
clods, sod, weeds and vegetable matter should be removed. 

Maintenance of Earth Roads 

Necessity of constant care. — The greatest problem of 
earth road building is that of maintenance, and any earth 
road which carries a great deal of traffic requires almost 
constant attention. Repairs should be made when needed. 
A few days spent upon the road at different times through- 
out the year will accomplish a great deal. It is a serious 
mistake to devote all of the time in road building to a par- 
ticular season, leaving the road without care the remainder 
of the year. Most communities need a few men and teams 
or graders spending their entire time in keeping the roads 
in repair. 

Dragging earth roads. — One of the most useful de- 
vices for the maintenance of public earth roads is the split- 
log drag. This works with great efficiency on both earth 
and gravel roads. To obtain the best results the roads 
should be dragged once each way after every heavy rain. 
This must be done while the soil is moist but not sticky. 

It is not necessary to employ the direct supervision of 
skilled engineers for the maintenance and repair of earth 
and gravel roads, providing the rules and suggestions they 
lay down are carefully and intelligently followed. A dif- 
ficult piece of construction or fixing of grades should, how- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



703 




Preparing foundation tor macadam road. 



^_ ' .i: 


- -- - 1 






^^^^^^^Bln'* 


iH 



Earth road — Bennington, Vermont. 



704 



AGRICULTURE AND 



ever, always be carried out under the supervision of an 
expert. 

Use of the King Road Drag 

D. W. King has the following to say about the use of 
the road drag: 

The road drag is known to road makers throughout 
the civilized world. Road dragging is practiced in almost every 




Maintained under patrol system. 

county in the United States. The drag has made speed- 
ways of many stretches of hopeless highways; it has rescued 
scores of isolated neighborhoods; it has lifted the wagon-road 
reputation of entire states and changed that reputation from 
wretched to excellent. 

All this and more, the simple, home-built, tool has 
accomplished, yet its work is scarcely well started, for 
the scope of the idea behind the tool is grasped by very few. 
The principle of proper drag construction is seldom understood. 
Errors are numerous both in the building of the drag and 
in its use. The most serious of these errors is in drag con- 
struction, because a poorly constructed drag, while it can be 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



705 



used so as to bring a measure of improvement to the road 
with quite ignorant handling, can not perform the best service 
or secure the most nearly perfect roads, -even when manipulated 
by a skilled operator. Therefore a faulty drag means a faulty 
road. 

Condition to Be Met. — For best results the drag must be 
made exactly according to specifications; the material on the 
road surface must be precisely in the right condition; the 
operator must be an expert in the management of the drag 




The split-log drag at work 



:Owa road. 



and also he must be an experienced and skilful teamster. 
Contrariwise, any kind of dragging with any kind of a drag 
is likely to leave the road far better than no dragging at 
all. 

From ocean to ocean the same common mistakes prevail. 
Prominent among them is the habit of waiting until the road- 
bed becomes dry and hard. Dragging a dry, hard road does 
little good and usually leaves a feeling of disappointment in 
the mind of the operator. Another mistake is keeping the road 
too flat; not obtaining a sufficient crown. 



706 AGRICULTURE AND 

In a large proportion of instances that have come under 
my observation, these faults in the road are due to the faulty 
construction of the drag. Almost universally drags are built 
too long or too heavy, or both. 

Making the Drag. — For drag building select a light wood. 
Either red elm or red cedar is excellent. Cottonw^ood, box- 
elder, or even willow will last for several years if the timber 
is split and the bark is peeled the day the trees are felled. 
When peeled and split the slabs will season quickly. If they 
are not split and peeled they become doty or rotten before 
they dry. When they dry out and season thoroughly, they 
are quite light and are reasonably strong. 

Road Club Projects 

Permanent road building is not, as a rule, the work of 
boys and girls. But the building, maintenance and repair 
of common earth and gravel roads is quite within the reach 
of the boys ranging in age from twelve to nineteen. Two 
different projects are suited to club work. 

One project is known as the "School Road Dragging 
Club," in which the pupils, under the leadership of the 
teacher and with the advice of the road officer, take charge 
of one mile of public highway near the schoolhouse, keep- 
ing it well dragged and in repair for the season. A second 
project permits individual pupils to take charge of one 
mile of road in front of the homestead, keeping it carefully 
dragged and in good repair during the summer. 

Awards. — The basis of award in either of these club 
projects may be as follows: 

1. General improvement in road during period of club 
project, based upon trueness, alignment, regularity and 
clearness of ditches, amount and shape of crown, bet- 
terment of surface and drainage » 15 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 707 

2. General condition of improved section at end of club 
project period with reference to clearness of ditches, 
waterways, trueness and shape of borders, freedom 
from ruts and depressions, smoothness, compactness, 
regularity of width 15 

3. Economy of methods used, based on ten cents per hour 

for time of horse, and ten to twenty cents per hour for 
member 15 

4. Complete records and story of "Tlie Road Work of the 

Season" 15 

5. Faithfulness of maintenance during club project period 

with reference to freedom of flow in ditches and water- 
way, repair of borders and washes, rapidity of drying 
out and hardening after rains, and the regularity and 
systematic use of the split-log drag 40 

Total score 100 

The authors are indebted to Mr. Maurice O. Eldridge, of 
the office of Good Roads, Washington, D. C., for able assistance 
in the preparation of this chapter, and to the office of Public 
Roads for photographs used. 



708 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XLIII 
EXTENSION EDUCATION AND THE FARMER 

DURING recent years there has been marked progress 
in the development of what is known as extension 
education in agricuhure, home economics and other Hnes of 
practical affairs. The fundamental purpose of extension 
teaching is to give a larger proportion of our people more 
helpful and immediate benefit from our educational institu- 
tions. In this chapter we shall deal especially with insti- 
tutions established for agricultural research and teaching 
in agriculture and household science, with particular refer- 
ence to the farm and home interests. 

The Aim of Extension Agencies 

Farming is no longer a matter of mere planting and 
harvesting of crops and enjoying the fruits of one's labor. 
It is a skilled vocation and a highly complex business 
requiring brains and intelligence of well educated people. 
It is coming to be a fact to-day that educational institutions 
supported by public funds fail to fulfill their highest mission 
if they do not employ a force of extension teachers in 
addition to their corps of resident teachers. 

Many helpful agencies, planned and directed by such 
institutions, are now at work seeking to extend to the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



709 



farming population the advantages of colleges of agricul- 
ture with the results of research, the discoveries of the 
laboratories and the facts established by experiment sta- 
tion work. Such agencies have proved invaluable in carry- 
ing to the homes of the people the ever-growing fund of 
knowledge and scientific discovery and helping in its appli- 
cation to the common practise of the farm and the home. 




Planning nnd working with the farmer located at an alti- 
tude of 9,500 feet above sea level. 

Various extension agencies. — Extension work in 
agriculture and home economics is carried on in many 
different ways. First of all we have the fanners' institutes, 
one of the oldest institutions in extension education. 
Second, short courses, or what are sometimes called mova- 
ble schools. Third, agricultural trains. Fourth, county 
agent work. Fifth, boys and girls' club work, or exten- 
sion work in agriculture and home economics for young 
people. 



710 



AGRICULTURE AND 



All of these agencies have been rendering most excellent 
service. During recent years they have helped to raise the 
level of the entire field of rural life and connect it closely 
with the campus and the class room of the agricultural col- 
lege and its experiment station. In like manner the whole 
country has become the campus and schoolroom of the 
United States Department of Agriculture with its many 
sources of instruction and helpfulness. It is possible 
through these various means for every person to receive 




Conducting a field demonstration. 

instruction and inspiration from the agricultural department 
of the federal government or from his own state college 
of agriculture, and thereby have the advantage of a course 
of study even though he can not take the time and expense 
to go to school. Every man, woman and child, through the 
work of extension teachers, state and national specialists, 
demonstrators, county agents, club leaders, and through the 
farmers' bulletins, circulars, news letters, farm journals and 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 711 

similar agencies, can receive help and instruction, which, 
except for the deep-seated interest of the government in 
agricultural interests, would cost many dollars or prove 
wholly beyond reach to many ambitious young farmers. 

Practical help rendered. — The response to this effort 
on the part of state and national organizations has proved 
very encouraging. It is probably not too much to say that 
almost every progressive and enterprising farmer is to-day 




Field clemonstmtion in treating oat-field. 

in touch with one or more of these extension agencies. 
Through them he is broadening his own outlook, increasing 
his education, extending the profits of his farm and placing 
his home and its life upon a higher and better plane. The 
busy housewife and her daughter are also being served 
through extension teaching and have made a notable begin- 
ning in the reorganization of the business of housekeeping 
and home-making. As in the case of the farmer, they can 
with a reasonable amount of ambition and very little ex- 



712 AGRICULTURE AND 

pense, get a liberal education in the household arts and 
related subjects for home and community welfare through 
the opportunities offered through extension work. 

Other extension fields. — While most of the extension 
work has heretofore been along agricultural and home 
economics lines, the present tendency is greatly to broaden 
the extension field. At the present time the universities, 
normal schools and even the public-school systems are all 
seeking to extend their schoolroom to patrons who are un- 
able to come to the school itself. We may confidently look 
forward to the time when a very large proportion of our 
people will be continuing their education and increasing 
their efficiency while actually at work in their vocation and 
no longer in direct connection with the class rooms of the 
school. The community of to-morrow will have extension 
workers in music, art, literature, community hygiene recre- 
ation, and many other kindred subjects that have to do with 
man's economic. Industrial and educational welfare. Through 
their help and guided by their own ambition the educational 
level of our people will be greatly elevated and their effi- 
ciency in every line of endeavor greatly increased and in 
this way we shall, in the language of Doctor P. P. Claxton, 
Commissioner of Education, help "bring about a real 
democracy in which all the people may be well educated." 

Methods of Extension Work 

The aim and method of extension teaching are much 
more direct and immediate than in the case of resident or 
regular college teaching. Agricultural extension teaching 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 713 

seeks to give help of a very concrete and direct kind. It 
tries to secure the immediate and practical application of 
the best principles and practise in farming, home-making 
and other subjects of interest. The instruction given may 
in a sense be brief and limited in its nature as compared 
with the well organized and sustained courses of study 
found in educational institutions, yet it is highly valuable. 





& 






1 


m 




m^\r^^ 


I 


1 


wmWk ■*■■ wl 



Tenching business nietbods tin >ii-m < iiildren's market day. 

The college or technical school seeks through a long period 
of study the completion of such lines of work as to produce 
a leader, a teacher or a farmer ready to put his education 
into common service, both for his own benefit and that 
of the public. The aim of the college is thus of a more 
remote type and plans for a broader culture and develop- 
ment than is possible through extension teaching. This, 
however, in no sense disparages the methods of extension 



714 AGRICULTURE AND 

teaching, which have their place and will aim at as definite 
and valuable results in making for efficiency of all the 
people as does regular class-room teaching. 

Organization of extension teaching. — Because of its 
practical character and the lack of opportunity for 
long continued study, extension teaching needs to be even 
more carefully planned and carried out than does resident 
teaching. Sane- as well as practical methods devoid of all 
scholastic cant and directly related to the immediate prob- 
lems and needs at hand must be worked out. Otherwise 
results will fail to show the largest returns for the invest- 
ment of time, energy and money, both on the part of the 
state and of the patrons receiving the benefit of the exten- 
sion teaching. The subject matter taught in extension work, 
while of the same general character as that presented in 
the class room and approved by scientific research, must be 
freed from all technicalities, unexplained theories and fan- 
ciful applications. Its key-note must be its fruitfulness and 
immediacy of application to the interests and needs of the 
farm and home. A liberal use of common sense is most 
imperative in the difficult problem of keeping constantly 
before us the ideals of science while at the same time fitting 
scientific discoveries and principles into immediate concrete 
practise. 

The organization of extension teaching is usually car- 
ried out through state and government agencies, but more 
directly through some local representative and community 
organization. The United States Department of Agriculture, 
every state college of agriculture and various other organi- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



715 



zations are busily at work making plans and perfecting 
arrangements for administering their part of the great 
work of educating our people in their homes and at their 
occupations. Many highly trained and experienced leaders 





A Lincoln. Nebraska, clnb prirl who became extension 
helper to state extension service. 

and practical men of affairs are giving their time, their 
thought and their energy to this great work. The day is 
not far distant when every farm and home in the nation 



716 AGRICULTURE AND 

may, if it chooses, be in touch with educational oppor- 
tunities which a generation ago were available only to 
those most highly favored by fortune. 

Farmers' Institutes 

The farmers' institute is one of the oldest known 
agencies of extension work and as such is considered by 
many as the "forerunner of modern extension methods 
and agencies." For many years it has been in active 
operation in practically every state of the Union. The in- 
stitute is not only held for the farmers and their families ; 
but is organized and conducted almost entirely by them. 
At the institute meetings the farmers themselves discuss all 
kinds of problems relating to the home, the farm, the 
school and the common social life of the community. In 
many respects the fanners' institute is as democratic and 
broadly representative of the community needs and inter- 
ests as are perhaps any other extension organizations. 

Demands upon the farmers' institutes. — In order to 
be of real helpfulness and service the farmers' institute 
must keep fully abreast of the times. This must hold not 
only in the discussions and in the subject matter presented, 
but also with respect to the general organization and meth- 
ods of conducting the institute and its meetings. Unless 
the institute is progressive and deals with live vital prob- 
lems, it is not worthy the support of the people, much 
less worthy the encouragement and support of the state. 
This does not mean, however, that the farmers' institute 
must present a highly technical or theoretical program or 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 717 

that it must deal with speculative problems of doubtful 
interest and application. The best type of institutes keeps 
close to the real needs and definite problems of the farming 
community, and seeks to afford practical help upon the most 
puzzling and important problems confronting its members. 
Institute program. — The institute program should be 
as carefully planned and carried out as the program of 
any scientific or professional organization. Exemplifying 
this principle, a recent farmers' institute held in one of the 
central states consisted of a three days' program. In it 
were given addresses of both practical and scientific value 
bearing upon farm and home management. There were 
large exhibits of products raised on the farm and pro- 
duced in the home. The local rural schools had exhibits of 
their work. Stock and grain judging contests were held 
and instruction given in these subjects. All kinds of demon- 
strations, such as butter-making, baking, canning and the 
like were carried out. First aid to the injured was ex- 
emplified and the care of babies and young children demon- 
strated. Cooking contests were engaged in and a study of 
soils, grains and farm tools pursued. Different methods 
of spraying were demonstrated and practical work given in 
the setting, pruning and grafting of trees. Demonstrations 
were given in grading, picking, labeling and general market- 
ing methods of important orchard and garden products. 
In addition to these activities special conferences were held 
on cooperative buying and selling. Moving pictures of 
various farm interests were shown. Recreation hours 
were enjoyed and luncheons and social gatherings 



718 AGRICULTURE AND 

abounded on all sides. In short, everything was up-to-date 
and every part of the program expressed the intelligence, 
the ambitions and the progressive ideals of the community. 

As would be expected, agricultural trains, short courses, 
chautauquas, county agricultural agents, boys' and girls' 
club work, and other means of education were to be found 
and were well patronized in this county ; yet none was more 
popular than the modern institute and probably none ren- 
dered more immediate inspiration and help. 

The speakers. — At its best the farmers' institute has 
oflficers as well as program committees who are concerned 
first and foremost only for the efficiency and success of 
the institute. They aim at making it a force for the profit 
and enjoyment of all. Consequently, ambitious politicians, 
favorite friends of the officers and influential citizens or 
office holders are not permitted to monopolize program 
time unless they have something of true value to offer. 
Favoritism or weakness is never allowed to interfere with 
efficiency. Every person who speaks on the institute plat- 
form must have something of fundamental value to offer, 
preferably from his own experience. The program as well 
as the individual speeches must be timed just right and run 
according to schedule. Nothing must be overdone and 
everything must be well done. Everybody, young and old, 
is to be welcomed and especially provided for at the 
institutes. Farmers, teachers, preachers, lawyers, bankers 
and doctors will all find something of interest and value in 
a well balanced and well presented farmers' institute pro- 
gram. Special lectures and demonstrations must be planned 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 719 

and efficiently executed for the boys and girls. Every 
person who is interested in agriculture or in rural life 
should be able to find in the institute a source of inspira- 
tion and practical education. 

Short Courses or Movable Schools 

Another valuable opportunity open to farmers is found 
in the short courses, or "movable schools" conducted dur- 
ing the winter or slack season usually by the colleges of 
agriculture. In most states these short courses run from 
six days to two months. Generally they are held at the 
colleges, but in other instances they convene in various 
parts of the state as extension courses, or movable schools. 
Short courses definitely center on certain specified subjects, 
and involve class instruction and demonstration work, 
rather than free-for-all discussions and a general program 
of wide range. General discussions and practical questions 
are by no means barred, however, in short-course work. 

Work of the short courses. — In the short courses the 
special problems confronting the farmers of the region are 
brought forward, and the experimental results of much 
careful work and investigation are freely given to them. 
The best type of crops, the most favorable rotations, the 
most successful means of combatting insect and other plant 
enemies, instruction on breeds of live stock adapted to local 
conditions, protection against animal diseases, systems of 
marketing, and many other vital problems are discussed and 
taught in a helpful way. In addition, instruction is usually 
given in stock and grain judging and the farmers are so 



720 AGRICULTURE AND 

trained to efficiency in these lines that they can judge their 
own stock or crops with sufficient accuracy for all practical 
purposes. 

Good returns. — Time and money spent in attending 
short courses, movable schools, or other types of educa- 
tional meetings relating to farm interests are profitably 
invested. The progressive farmer who not only compre- 
hends helpful scientific truths, but has the enterprise and 
ability to put them into practise upon his own farm will 
reap many-fold in returns for all he has expended. In 
addition, the pleasure and satisfaction that come from co- 
operating with the most progressive members of his county 
or neighborhood are in themselves sufficient compensation 
for all the sacrifice required. 

The County Agricultural Agent's Work 

One of the new agencies which has more recently en- 
tered the field of agricultural extension education in the in- 
terest of rural development is the county agricultural agent. 
The county agent is an agricultural or household science 
leader or extension representative whose business is to 
organize, lead, instruct and give agricultural direction and 
bring from every source helpful instruction and advice to 
the farmers and their families at home, in the field and in 
the schools of the county. 

Purpose of the county agent. — ^The relation of the 
county agent's work to the agricultural interests of his 
county is suggested in the following words from Doctor 
B. T. Galloway, Dean of the College of Agriculture, Cor- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



721 



nell University: "The successful county agent is 
one who can properly represent the whole community and 
the state and federal agencies aiding him, and who can 
use these agencies and all other agencies to the fullest 
advantage to the benefit of the community. The most suc- 
cessful work will be accomplished through the agent as an 
organizer and administrator. If he attempts to do much 
of the detailed work, he will so scatter his energies as to 




County agent's exhibit at county fair. 

accomplish little. It is not to be expected that the farm 
bureau agent can qualify as an expert upon all subjects that 
will have to be used in his county. He should depend- 
largely upon specialists in subject-matter in departments of 
the college and in the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture to aid him in this work. His work can be made much 
more effective if he will so organize it as to utilize these 



722 



AGRICULTURE AND 



subject-matter specialists in his county rather than to at- 
tempt to do all of the subject-matter work himself." In 
connection with the county agent, and back of his work, 
there is in many of the states an organization of farmers 
of the county, organized for the purpose of furnishing a 
sort of clearing house for agricultural and household in- 




The country agricnltural n,gent is discussing sraiu problems 
and smut explosions with tbe farmers at tlirasbiug time. 

formation and an organization through which the county 
agent may work. This organization is commonly known 
as the Farm Bureau. 

The work of the county agent. — The advent of the 
Mexican boll-weevil in the cotton-fields of Texas was re- 
sponsible for the beginning of this work. So great were its 
ravages that in 1904, 1905 and 1906 the United States De- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 723 

partment of Agriculture employed Doctor Seaman A. 
Knapp to investigate what could be done to exterminate 
the boll-weevil and to demonstrate to the southern farmer 
that cotton could be grown in spite of the pest. 

Doctor Knapp soon discovered that printed circulars 
of instruction, public lectures and other former means of 
agricultural instruction would not accomplish what was 
needed to be done. So he determined upon a plan of field 
and farm demonstration work for the purpose of showing 
upon a man's own farm not only how to exterminate the 
boll-weevil but how to grow an earlier variety of cotton, 
and if possible, a weevil-resistant strain. From this begin- 
ning there has been a very rapid growth of this type of 
extension work, until at the present time county agricul- 
tural agents are employed in every state in the Union. 

The county workers. — Men employed as county agri- 
cultural agents are required to be possessed of scientific 
information as well as successful experience on the prob- 
lems of agriculture. They are expected also to have had 
practical experience in the general management of a farm. 
Plans have already been made by which the county agent 
is assisted by a woman agent who will be thoroughly trained 
and fitted to advise and direct the girls and women in all 
matters relating to the making of better homes. Several 
hundred women agents are now at work in as many 
counties in all sections of the United States. 

Organization of the county work. — The county agents 
live in the county and are supplied with an office where 
they may be consulted on special office days. They are fur- 



724 



AGRICULTURE AND 



nished with some means of transportation so that they may 
travel about the county from farm to farm and from group 
to group. In this way the county agents carry to the very 
door of the farm home the services of speciaHsts. They are 
able to bring to those who can not go to college the help, ad- 
vice and leadership of the best scientific investigators, and 
really make the farms a part of the campus, class rooms 
and laboratories of the agricultural college and demonstra- 




Teaching seed selection to farmers of to-morrow. 

tion centers of the experiment stations and the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

Character of help rendered. — The work of the county 
agents is calculated to increase the profits of farming, and 
to make more possible the comforts and efficiency of 
the farm home; to aid in conserving and building up the 
soil; and to encourage the advancement of community edu- 
cation and social interests. Like the physician or surgeon. 



■ THE FARMING BUSINESS 725 

the county agents are to be called when advice, treatment 
or preventive measures are needed. They plan for a system 
of demonstrations to show the best methods of managing 
the soil, preparing the seed bed, selecting and caring for 
seed, management and care of farm animals, preparation 
of foods, home canning, organization and care of gardens 
and orchards, and the handling and conservation of farm 
buildings and machinery. 

If a herd is stricken with tuberculosis, the hogs with 
the cholera, the cotton-field with the boll-weevil, or the corn- 
field with cutworms, or the members of the family with 
some disease caused by tubercular milk or foul water, the 
county agent should be notified and his help secured. If 
he is not able directly to give the information and aid he 
will know where to secure assistance on short notice. In 
like manner the county agent will be of special assistance in 
planning the proper management of soils and crops when 
the seasons are too dry or too wet ; in the best organization 
of farm enterprises ; and in the management of all the 
efficiency factors important to the success of American 
agriculture. 

Financial support. — The county agent work was first 
supported by the United States Department of Agriculture 
by the use of funds directly appropriated by Congress to 
the department. This was liberally supplemented by a fund 
from the General Education Board. The work under 
Doctor Knapp's direction made definite progress toward the 
extermination of the boll-weevil and the development of 
resistant types of cotton. The best part of his work was 



726 AGRICULTURE AND . 

the fact that through the county agent movement he suc- 
ceeded in getting the soutliern farmers to appreciate that 
they needed to grow their own pork, beef, poultry and dairy 
products and that crop rotation was quite as possible in the 
South as in the central and western states. He also dem- 
onstrated through these men that growing cotton as a single 
crop enterprise from year to year meant certain destruction 
agriculturally to the South. 

This work called for a more liberal appropriation of 
funds from year to year from four different sources: (1) 
the United States Department of Agriculture; (2) the 
slate legislatures ; (3) the General Education Board; (4) the 
local or county government. 

Congress in the year 1912 appropriated an additional 
amount of money to be expended for the development of 
farm demonstration and county agent work in the northern, 
central and western states for the first time. The fund 
was supplemented by one hundred thousand dollars donated 
by a Chicago business man. In 1914 the Smith-Lever Act 
y/as enacted and this made federal aid available for every 
state in the Union, beginning July 1, 1914. The entire 
amount appropriated for the first year was four hundred 
and eighty thousand dollars, to be divided equally among 
the forty-eight states. The appropriation is gradually to 
increase until the federal government is contributing some 
four and one-half million dollars annually for the encour- 
agement of agriculture. 

The Smith-Lever law contemplates that the greater part 
of this immense fund shall be spent in supporting county 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 727 

agricultural agents, state and district leaders in boys* and 
girls' club work, demonstration work in home economics, 
and other assistance in shaping and building up agricultural 
interests throughout the nation. The agricultural colleges 
and the United States Department of Agriculture are to 
cooperate in carrying out the provisions of the act. 

Steps to be taken in securing a county agent. — The 
matter of securing an agent for a county should first be 
taken up with the state leader, whose headquarters are 
with the agricultural college of each state. He is in a 
position to assist in planning and conducting the campaign 
for an agent and can give information in regard to available 
sources of county, state and federal funds, and the amount 
of funds necessary properly to finance the movement. When 
the county is ready for the appointment of an agent the 
state leader will doubtless be able to recommend a man 
qualified for the work. 

Agricultural Publications 

Probably in no other occupation are there so many 
helpful publications available, with little or no cost to those 
who are interested and will use them, as in agriculture. 
The United States Department of Agriculture has printed 
and is distributing free of charge to all who desire them, 
many hundred different bulletins relating to the farm and 
its interests. In addition to this vast array of practical, 
scientific material, special bulletins for farmers, circulars 
and dififerent series of follow-up instruction for boys' and 
girls' work are available ; also various state agricultural 



72S AGRICULTURE AND 

colleges and experiment stations are annually publishing 
helpful material bearing upon the agricultural problems of 
their state. These publications are all free to the citizens 
of the state. 




Use a real measure in agricultural acliievement. 

An abundance of valuable material. — Added to these 
lines are many circulars of information, agricultural reports 
and special bulletins upon definite farm problems, distri- 
buted either by federal, state or private organizations. In- 
deed the amount of this material is so plentiful that its very 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 729 

quantity is in dangei of defeating its purpose. When a 
farmer has before him a list of several hundred state and 
federal bulletins on farm and home interests, and adds to 
this a list of a hundred or more from his own state agricul- 
tural institutions, it requires some care to make a wise selec- 
tion, yet he may be sure of finding the very ones needed for 
the particular problems of his own farm or home. 

Each region of the country or even each section of a 
state, indeed every individual farm, has its own particular 
problems. It is the business of the progressive farmer, 
therefore, not to try to read everything printed upon agri- 
culture, but to select from the available material those par- 
ticular helps which relate directly to his needs. In this 
way one can secure the assistance of scores or even hun- 
dreds of highly trained and thoroughly experienced agri- 
cultural scientists and practitioners, and, without expense 
to himself, add much of their knowledge to his own in the 
advancement of his economic interests. 

Agriculture in the home library. — Every home library 
should therefore contain a general selection from among 
the agricultural bulletins, reports and circulars available 
for free distribution. In addition to these, the agricultural 
section of the home library should contain a few well se- 
lected reference books upon the subjects of cooking, house- 
keeping, home-making and agriculture. These are neces- 
sary in conjunction with bulletins for one who desires to 
get the general idea of the whole field of agriculture and 
home-making. For while each bulletin deals with its own 
specific problem, a book puts one in touch with the 



730 



AGRICULTURE AND 



wider relations of his vocation. By such means as 
these the farmer who has not had the opportunity of 
technical schooling can, nevertheless, keep in touch with 
the best agricultural thought and practise of his day. And 
one who does this need have no fear of becoming an "old 
fogy" or "getting into the rut." Not only will he better 
his farming and thereby increase his financial success, but 




Agricultural ageut's iiortablt' rur;:i library, 



will keep an alert mind and grow mentally while im- 
proving his economic welfare, and will by their educational 
processes be able to remove the thorns and stingers from 
the so-called drudgery of farm life. 

The home library. — But one should always be broader 
than his occupation. It is not enough for the farmer and 
his family to keep in touch with the best agricultural litera- 
ture of the day. Our farming population probably aver- 
ages higher in intelligence and natural capacity than any 
other great body of industrial workers. The interests of 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 731 

the farmer and his family will therefore naturally lead 
to reading matter covering a wide range of interests. 
The library of the home will need to have a well selected 
stock of books of literary, historic and practical scientific 
nature. On the library table will be found not only some 
farm journals, but the daily paper, a weekly magazine of 
national scope and one or more of the best monthly maga- 
zines. A fair proportion of one's income expended in this 
way will yield the highest returns in personal satisfaction, 
in broadened interests and intelligence and in all that goes 
to make life most worth while. 

The progressive farmer is therefore, like his farm, im- 
proving daily. He is characteristic of the highest type of 
intelligent citizenship. He provides not only for the physi- 
cal welfare of himself and his family, but also for intellec- 
tual needs. Not satisfied to follow blindly the methods 
learned when a boy upon his father's farm, he appropriates 
the lessons of modern science and profits by the results 
of experimental agriculture. He is too well balanced to be 
led off by mere fads, but at the same time he is sufficiently 
open minded so that the really valuable never passes him 
by. The progressive farmer, whether he is a graduate of 
an agricultural college or of a rural school of his native 
community, makes use of all educational agencies and adds 
to his storehouse every year, net earnings of health, wealth 
and increasing intelligence. 



732 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XLIV 

EXTENSION EDUCATION BY MEANS OF 
BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK 

CLUB work is one of the several forms of extension 
teaching now being systematically conducted through- 
out the entire nation. In Canada, and in several of the for- 
eign countries the work is also being introduced. 

Purpose of Club Work 

These clubs are an organized system of extension teach- 
ing for young people, and contemplate the carrying on of 
home, farm, orchard and garden projects throughout the 
growing season and in fact throughout the entire year. 
Boys and girls are organized into groups called clubs. All 
members of these groups carry on a uniform or definite 
line of work outlined by national, state and local leaders. 
Systematic instructions are given from time to time through- 
out the season, club meetings are held, programs are fur- 
nished for detailed guidance, field and demonstration meet- 
ings are conducted by state, district or local leaders. These 
club leaders attend meetings, conduct fairs, special club 
festivals, play tournaments, club fairs, pageants and ban- 
quets, some of which are held for the purpose of creating 
enthusiasm and interest, and to give the members of the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 7ZZ 

group the encouragement and common motive needed for 
success in their work. 

Correlation with home interests, — Club work is dis- 
tinctly a back-to-the-home movement, and seeks to corre- 
late and coordinate the activities of the school with those 
of the community and the home. The club organization 
through its group meetings aims to develop leadership, inde- 
pendence of initiative, cooperative strength, and an appre- 
ciation of what constitutes community welfare and effi- 
ciency. 

Other of the leading objects in this type of extension 
work are to offer young people of rural and village life 
the careful guidance and direction in agricultural and home 
work and interests such as will retain for the farming busi- 
ness many of the best young people of every community. 
The purpose is also to demonstrate through these trained 
boys and girls the highest efficiency and best practise for 
the farm and the home. The boys and girls through this 
group organization are likewise afforded the training in 
industry and team work that will make for better com- 
munity ideals. The club presents also a plan of systematic 
study that renders help to the ruril and village schools 
which are endeavoring to teach agriculture and home 
economics. It gives to the isolated boy and girl of the 
country the educational advantages so essential to all- 
around development. It teaches habits of thrift, economy, 
industry, and a positive liking for the work of the farm. 
Finally, the boys' and girls' club inspires a greater interest 
in all the activities and enterprises of the farm through 



734 



AGRICULTURE AND 




INDUSTFm. CONTEST 

ORCANIZAT/ON 
■'<-S 



The large star shows location of county leader, black dots 
location of boys' and girls' club groups in the country for 
the year, each group receiving help and inspiration from a 
local leader. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



72>5 




Large star represents the county leader, black dots show 
club groups and small circles represent the club member- 
ship of each group. 



736 



AGRICULTURE AND 



developing a broader culture and giving a knowledge of 
the plant and animal world with which the farmer and 
his family have to do. 

Some of the Club Projects Given to Groups 
Field, farm, fruit and garden projects. — In corn, po- 
tato, sugar beet or mangel, market-garden, alfalfa, apple, 
rotation, home garden and canning work. 




A New England club exhibit. 

Home demonstration projects. — In home canning and 
marketing, mother-daughter home canning, garment- 
making, home garden, boys' and girls' home canning, wheat 
and bread work. 

Animal husbandry projects. — In pork and crop pro- 
duction, poultry project consisting of hatching and rear- 
ing and egg-laying and marketing, beef and crop pro- 
duction, and dairy work. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 7Z7 

Special club projects. — In home management, farm 
management, farm and home handicraft work. 

Requirements of members in all projects. — The re- 
quirements for all clubs are practically the same; namely, 
every member is required to make application for mem- 
bership, agree to requirements, such as attend meetings, fol- 
low instructions, and faithfully manage at least his acreage 
or project unit. There is as a rule no limit to the size of the 
plot nor the amount of work which may be undertaken. 
The member must keep a record of observation, cost, re- 
ceipts, and make an exhibit of his products at the time and 
place designated by state and local leaders. 

Basis of award. — For basis of award, follow-up in- 
struction, enrollment blanks and organization circulars, 
write to the state agent in charge of boys' and girls' exten- 
sion work at the state college of agriculture of your own 
state. If possible arrange for the county club leader or 
county superintendent of schools to assist you in getting 
a club or group of boys and girls organized in one or two 
of the above projects. In some communities it is very im- 
portant that one project be used for the boys and another 
of more definite application to the home used for the girls. 
No school community or district should undertake more 
than two club projects or groups. It is much better to be 
content with one or two club groups and make a definite 
success of them than to have many and practically fail 
in all. 



738 



AGRICULTURE AND 



Results from Club Work 

The results of boys' and girls' club activities in agri- 
culture and home economics are both immediate and re- 
mote. The more immediate result is the economic effi- 
ciency that it brings to the farm and the farming community 
by making of every boy and girl a demonstrator of the best 
knov^n practises of agriculture and home economics. Boys 
and girls as a rule, with their open minds free from prej- 




Parcel post and market exhibit. 

udice, unpossessed of habits of bad practise, and in the 
formative period of life, are in position to take and put 
into immediate practise the instruction and directions of 
scientists and specialists. Indeed they are much more 
readily influenced than are their parents and adult neigh- 
bors who have been practising for so many years in other 
ways, and therefore have developed habits that are difficult 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 739 

to overcome. The demonstrations made possible through 
boys and girls render it a simple matter for the adults to 
secure through each object lesson the facts essential to 
their own advantage in conducting the farming business. 

Results upon character. — A more remote but not less 
important result is that club work offers under skilful 
leadership and direction just the kind of out-of-door indus- 
trial life required for the conservation of the health, 
character and ideals of young life ranging from ten to 
twenty-one years of age. The club work also develops 
within the member a desire for ownership and possession 
of things worth while, and teaches the dignity of achieve- 
ment through personal effort with soils, farm animals, 
crops and kitchen enterprizes. A very important result is 
that the work sets standards of achievement for young peo- 
ple in connection with the common duties of the farm and 
home life. To teach a child to earn a dollar through 
his own investment of time, money and energy is certainly 
one of the important things in connection with education. 
Such training will go a long way toward teaching to save 
or spend the money and may later prevent the common 
abuse or the misuse of wealth. 

Club Leadership 

In every state of the Union there are from four to forty 
people devoting all of their time to the leadership, organiza- 
tion and direction of the boys' and girls' agricultural and 
home project activities. In addition to these there are also 
a corps of specialists and national leaders who assist the 



740 AGRICULTURE AND 

state forces in the promotion and reinforcement of the 
work. 

Economic support. — The state, district and county 
leaders are usually paid from funds obtained from a number 
of different sources — from the Smith-Lever Act, from the 
state colleges of agriculture, from the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, from the local, county or city govern- 
ment, and sometimes from still other sources. Prizes, 
premiums and general awards used in connection with the 
work are not furnished by the state and federal govern- 




Superintendent Sussen and Harold Straiiderg — boy cliam- 
pion. 

ments but are usually supplied by interested individuals, or- 
ganizations, institutions and commercial concerns. 

Relation to Schools 
The relation of the boys' and girls' club work to the 
schools of the state and county should be similar to that 
of the general extension activities to the larger educational 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



741 



institutions. Surely the natural and legitimate extension 
work of the rural and village school lies in the boys' and 
girls' clubs. This agency is designed to translate the 
theories of text-book and class-room work into terms of 
life. 

Opportunity of the school. — It is now generally con- 
ceded that it is impossible properly to teach the subjects of 
agriculture and home economics from text-book and class- 




School com club testing seed corn in sawdust germination 
boxes. 

room work alone. Definite efforts therefore need to be 
made to help the young people put into immediate practise 
the truths, experiments and laboratory results, not at the 
end of the course, but at the end of each day's lesson. 
Surely then every farmer and farmer's wife will be inter- 



742 AGRICULTURE AND 

ested in seeing that the local school makes an effort thus 
to correlate, through the force of club extension work, the 
book and class-room education with the life of the home 
and the farm. 

Club Records 
The table opposite will show something of the results 
that may be obtained from the boys' and girls' club work 
in any state. The greater the number of young people 
who enroll, stay in the work, and complete all of the work 
required by the leaders of the state, the greater the tangible 
results shown in this table will be. 

Application of Terms Used in the Boys' and Girls' 

Extension Work 
The federal government, together with all the state ex- 
tension departments, is putting out a large amount of 
organization and follow-up instructions for this type of 
work. The following terms are used systematically in 
all of this printed material and it is important that the gen- 
eral public be familiar with the use of these terms as they 
are intended to be used by the leaders in charge of the 
work: 

1. Club Work — Club work is an organized system of ex- 
tension teaching for young people through demonstrations in 
the lield and home. It contemplates the organization of young 
people into groups called clubs, for the purpose of definite work 
under carefully prepared projects and with adequate local lead- 
ership. 

2. An Experiment — An experiment is an effort designed to 
discover principles or facts and the methods of their applica- 
tion. 

3. A Test — A test is an efifort to prove or disprove the 



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744 



AGRICULTURE AND 



practical, local application of established principles and facts 
under a given set of conditions. 

4. A Demonstration — A demonstration is an effort de- 
signed to show by example the practical application of an 
established fact. Demonstrations may be of methods or of 
results. 

5. Field Meeting — A field meeting is a gathering of young 




Boys and girls bringing corn to school for judging and testing 
in a Cook County rural school. 



people for the purpose of observing, discussing, and studying 
the progress or results of a definite field demonstration. 

6. Club Visit. — A club visit is a personal call by state, dis- 
trict, or local club leader to the club group or club meeting, 
which may be held in the home, school, club room, court-house 
or other convenient place. 

7. Club Project — A club project is the particular home 
work of field, garden, etc., to be undertaken by the entire club 
group. 

8. Home Project — A home project is the individual work 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 



745 



undertaken by each club member at home, as part of the club 
project or work of the group. 

9. Contest — A contest is a competitive phase of the club 
work, in which club members measure themselves and their 
work by a common standard, called a basis of award. 

10. Club Festival — A club festival is an organized part of 
the club work and has reference to the organized activities of 
a single day, on which members exhibit products, demonstrate 




Apple Club boys pruning orcliard under direction of comity 
ageut, Cortland Cuuuty, >«'e\v York. 



methods, hold related plays and other program features, for 
the purpose of arousing interest and creating enthusiasm for 
the work. 

11. Basis of Award — The basis of award is a standard of 
measurement, outlined for the convenience of leaders in deter- 
mining the achievement, grade, or standing of a club member, 
and is used for both the awarding of school credits for club 
work and the awarding of prizes, medals, diplomas, etc. 

12. Score-Card — A score-card is a standard of measure- 
ment employed for use in judging work to determine the quality 



746 



AGRICULTURE AND 



of products, animals, grains, and articles produced in connection 
with the boys' and girls' club work, 

13. Agricultural Club — An agricultural club is a club of 
young people organized for systematic instruction, for the pur- 
pose of developing the efficiency of its members in all general 
agricultural subjects and country life interests. 

14. Follow-up Instructions — Follow-up instruction is the 
especially prepared, typewritten, multigraphed, or printed direc- 
tions, and subject-matter directions prepared for club members, 




Selecting seed corn. 



and may deal with both the club group work and the subject- 
matter instructions for the individual home projects. 

15. Follow-up Work — Follow-up work is the term used 
to denominate the different efiforts, activities, and organization 
which seeks to aid, from time to time, the club group or indi- 
vidual member upon the plot in connection with the work, for 
the purpose of showing definite and concrete results at the close 
of the year. 

16. Specialist in Club Work — A specialist in club work is 
an individual who has been assigned to extension teaching in 
boys' and girls' club work on a particular subject, and who, 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 747 

as a rule, deals with subject matter and not the general organi- 
zation work. 

17. Local Leader — The local leader in boys' and girls' club 
work is the one who has been selected by the State, district, or 
county leader for the purpose of looking after the local group 
of club members, meeting with them at their regular meetings, 
holding field meetings and demonstrations, visiting their club 
plots and home project work, and in other ways representing 
the state agent in the conduct of the work. This person may 
be a paid or volunteer leader. 

18. Club Program — A club program is a definitely outlined 
series of activities required of club members, club groups and 
club leaders, for a given season or year. 

19. Club Plot — A club plot is a piece of ground required 
as the unit or acreage upon which the home project and field 
work is to be performed. 

20. Club Unit — The club unit is the outlined unit of work 
and refers to quantity or measurement of projects that can not 
be estimated in terms of acreage and yield. 

21. Completed Project — A completed project is an expres- 
sion used in boys' and girls* club extension work to indicate that 
a club leader, club group or club member has worked out the 
ent'-e program and fulfilled all requirements of the leaders in 
charge of the work including attendance at meetings, growing 
of the crop, harvesting, marketing, making exhibits and sub- 
mitting a properly filled out, signed, and attested crop report 
to the leader in charge at the end of season or year. 



748 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XLV 
PHYSICAL HEALTH AND EFFICIENCY 

NO question of farm administration is more important 
to the farmer than the health of himself and his fam- 
ily. Good health underlies all satisfaction, happiness and 
success. Sickness not only causes worry, but results in a 
more or less permanently lowered standard of efficiency. It 
shortens life and is expensive from every point of view. 
Every normal person wants to live long and be strong and 
vigorous while living. None would knowingly manage his 
life or work so as to shorten his years or produce invalidism 
as the result. 

The cost of sickness. — A person who is ill on an 
average of one day a month and requires the attention of 
some member of the family to take care of him, with per- 
haps a call from the doctor can figure on at least five dollars 
outlay in loss of time and labor, doctor's bills and medicine. 
This for one year would aggregate sixty dollars, and for a 
family of five, three hundred dollars a year of actual out- 
lay. While one may not realize this much loss because of 
our common habit of counting but our doctor's bills and 
the medicine wdien we are sick, yet time is money and a 
day spent in bed in place of the field is so much income lost. 
If, however, one is not ill to the extent of requiring medical 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 749 

attention or of being obliged to go to bed, but is only feeling 
out of sorts and incapable of doing his best work, he may 
not think to count the financial loss at all. But the fact, 
of course, is that one who is working up to but half of his 
physical efficiency is in fact losing half of his time and 
therefore half of the wage that he should earn. 

No small part of the planning and the care of the home 
should, therefore, be given to matters of hygiene and physi- 
cal health and its consequent efficiency. This will pay in 
dollars and cents, in happiness, satisfaction, long life and 
the ultimate success of every member of the family. 

Rural Health and Hygiene 

For many reasons the country should be more healthful 
than the city, yet our medical authorities and students of 
public health and efficiency are coming to doubt whether 
the greater part of our farm population live under as good 
hygienic conditions as the industrial workers of equal finan- 
cial rating in towns and cities. There is more than a sus- 
picion that farmers and their wives have a tendency to age 
earlier than is necessary, and in spite of the rush and tumult 
of the cities it is found that disease is as prevalent in rural 
as in urban districts. It is a notable fact that many of the 
preventable diseases year after year show a higher mor- 
tality rate in the country than in towns. With all of the 
country's natural advantages over the city, our health sta- 
tistics while far from complete, reveal approximately as 
high a death rate for rural communities as for the cities, 
with all our bad housing conditions in certain sections of 



750 AGRICULTURE AND 

cities and with a greater danger of contagion because of 
multitudes living close together. 

Death toll from preventable diseases. — The result of 
these easily remedied unhygienic conditions is measured in 
the annual loss of more than eighty thousand of our rural 
population through the ravages of tuberculosis; of nearly 
sixty thousand through intestinal troubles other than 
typhoid; of fifty-five thousand through various forms of 
colds; of fifty thousand through pneumonia; of sixteen 
thousand through typhoid ; and so in less numbers through 
diphtheria, scarlet fever and other such diseases. Here, 
then, is one of the greatest lines open to good farm and 
home management — to provide and plan for better living 
that life may be longer, health and happiness greater, and 
physical efficiency more perfect. 

Factors Bearing on the Health of the Farm 

A few illustrations will show some of the practical direc- 
tions that may be taken in securing for the farmer and his 
family better hygienic conditions. 

Water. — Careful studies of the water supply in a large 
number of wells in various parts of the country have con- 
vinced experts in these matters that approximately sixty 
per cent, of the farm wells are polluted by house and barn- 
yard drainage. Not only is the thought of drinking this 
seepage revolting, but it is a well-known fact that all such 
drainage contains bacteria, many species of which are detri- 
mental to health and vitality even where they do not pro- 
duce actual disease. A large proportion of cases of disen- 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 751 

tary, summer complaints and other forms of digestive 
derangements are directly traceable to the bacterial element 
in water, milk and other food. It hardly need be argued 
that intelligent farm management should relieve the family 
of all such danger to health and life. Any other point of 
view indicates a degree of carelessness inexcusable in the 
light of present-day knowledge on matters of hygiene and 
public health. 

Milk. — It is natural and right that the farm family 
should use a greater proportion of milk in their diet than 
any other people. Farm children especially should be sup- 
plied with an abundance of fresh pure milk and use less 
of tea and coffee. Yet it is beyond question as proved by 
thousands of tests that milk is being constantly used without 
pasteurizing from tubercular cows, thus exposing the chil- 
dren of the farm family to the danger of this dread infec- 
tion at an age when they are most susceptible to its ravages. 
A large proportion of the milk now sold in the cities has 
been pasteurized, or otherwise rendered sterile to the 
dangerous forms of bacteria so easily transmitted through 
milk. With the tuberculin tests easily available to every 
farmer, and with the possibility of simply and easily pasteur- 
izing the milk at home for the table, it would seem that we 
should not endanger health and life for want of either 
enterprise or care to make certain of the purity of the milk 
supply. 

Ventilation. — Not uncommonly the air breathed in 
our farm homes during the winter months is impure be- 
cause of inadequate ventilation. Windows are sometimes 



752 AGRICULTURE AND 

stuck or nailed fast that should be opened and sleeping 
rooms that should be freely aired are left entirely closed to 
shut out the cold. Cold air is often thought to be pure air 
and the outer atmosphere is carefully shut from sleeping 
rooms when we should permit a free circulation of air with- 
in. It is undoubtedly the lack of ventilation in our homes 
that causes so large a crop of pneumonia cases late in the 
winter and during the early spring of each season. When 
we come to realize that one does not "catch cold," that he 
does not "take" pneumonia, but that the cold and pneumonia 
germs are always present in some degree in our system, only 
to get the better of us and give us colds or pneumonia 
when our vitality is exhausted and when we are run down 
from lack of pure air, sleep, rest and unhygienic conditions, 
then we shall seek the causes resulting in this lowered 
vitality and so escape the ravages of disease. 

Drainage. — Farm cellars are not infrequently damp 
and improperly drained. The musty and "close" smell so 
often recognized as one comes into the house out of the 
open air indicates a condition that requires immediate 
remedy If we are to escape physical danger. Especially 
should the housewife, the greater part of whose work is in 
the house, not be subjected to the impurities always to be 
found in air of this sort. Cellar drains are inexpensive and 
concrete can easily be used to make the cellar walls and 
floor as clean and sweet as those of the upper stories. 
Windows can be put through the foundation walls admitting 
sunshine and fresh air to the basement, so that it may be as 
habitable as any room in the house. Such matters are only 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 753 

questions of enterprise and administrative ability and do not 
require any considerable outlay of money. 

The Farm Table 

The farm is the source of all food supply and furnishes 
town and city homes as well as farm homes witli all that 
goes on the table. There is every reason, therefore, why 
the farmer's table should be the most bountiful and hygienic 
table to be found anywhere. American farmers particularly 
do not stint their table. They have enough to eat and may 
be said to live well. 

Need of varied diet. — Yet many farm tables could be 
greatly improved by increasing the variety of the foods 
available. Especially does every person need an abundance 
of vegetables and fruits as a regular part of the dietary. 
Every day in the year should see the farm table supplied 
with an abundance of vegetables and fruits, whether in the 
winter months or during the growing season. Many of our 
tables, however richly supplied with "green stuff" during 
the summer months, are relatively destitute of any wide 
range or variety of these important foods during the winter 
and spring. And these are the times, because of the strain 
of the severe cold in the more northern regions and because 
of the more sedentary life lived by many families In the 
winter season, that we most need the effects of vegetables 
and fruit diet to maintain our health and vitality. 

Contribution of garden and orchard. — Good farm man- 
agement will, therefore, provide plenty of garden and or- 
chard products for the home table. Tliis will pay abun- 



754 AGRICULTURE AND 

dantly even when there is no attempt to market truck crops 
for profit. Equipment, and help when necessary, should 
be supplied in the home for the canning of an abundance of 
these foods to have throughout the entire year so that there 
may be no shortage or scrimping during the winter months. 
Attention given in these directions will not only render the 
diet more palatable, but will tend greatly to reduce doctor's 
bills and increase physical efficiency. 

Farm Sanitation and Flies 

The elimination of flies is one of the greatest of sanita- 
tion problems in the farm home, for wherever there is re- 
fuse left to decay, there flies will propagate and multiply. 
So rapidly is the process of generation with these pests that 
the progeny of a single pair by the end of a season results in 
millions of offspring. 

Danger from flies. — Flies are a nuisance from every 
point of view. They are dirty. They are born and bred in 
filth and live chiefly on manure and other refuse. Many 
of them are domestic in their tastes and seek the house, 
helping themselves to the food which comes to our table, 
sipping from the cups of milk before the children get their 
drink, cleaning their filth-laden feet upon our bread or our 
pastry and finally drowning themselves if they are not 
watched, in our cofifee or soup. Flies carry disease. The 
bacteria which transmit typhoid fever are so small that 
many thousands can be carried by a single fly, and enough 
distributed by one trip to a piece of food to give one or two 
members of the family the disease. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 755 

Flies are a source of no small loss in the production of 
meat, milk and butter. They torment animals and cause a 
large part of the energy and food supply that should go to 
the production of flesh or milk to be expended in fighting 
flies. Flies annoy horses, causing them to fret and adding 
greatly to the strain and burden of the day's work, thereby 
causing loss of flesh and reducing the working efficiency 
of the animals. 

Getting rid of flies. — There are two remedies for flies, 
the first and most effective is not to raise them. This, the 
authors appreciate, is more easily prescribed than accom- 
plished under practical farm conditions, and yet much can 
be done on any farm to eliminate the breeding places of 
flies. Since it takes from one to two weeks, depending 
on temperature and other conditions, for flies to hatch, it 
is evident that If all manure and filth which are the essen- 
tials of fly production should be removed every few days 
and not allowed to accumulate, flies would then cease to 
exist for the simple reason that they could not be hatched. 

But when flies exist around the barns and house, re- 
course must be had to screens and traps. The farm-house 
should be thoroughly screened as a protection against flies 
and mosquitoes. Traps can easily be made or purchased 
very cheaply, which if properly used will practically elimi- 
nate the fly pest about the farm-house. Such small matters 
and foresight do not demand the outlay of money and 
therefore are to be solved upon the basis of administrative 
ability and enterprise. 



756 AGRICULTURE AND 

Recreation and Health 

Health and happiness on the farm as anywhere else 
demand opportunity for relaxation and recreation. The 
farmer must occasionally have something more recreative 
and restful than the alternation of the day's work with the 
nightly chores. The farm wife must now and then have 
an opportunity to meet other people than those for whom 
she cooks and sews. The young people of the farm have 
as strong a desire for recreation and amusement as their 
city cousins. The social impulse in farm boys and girls is 
natural and right, and must have opportunity for its proper 
expression, if development is to be normal and if the desires 
are not to be turned away from the farm and toward the 
city or town. All work and no play will result in dulness 
on the farm as anywhere else. The farm can never hope 
to hold its boys and girls permanently to rural life unless 
it recognizes the necessity for a reasonable amount of free- 
dom from labor and of opportunity for social mingling and 
the fun and frolic that belongs to youth and in this way 
lightens many heavy burdens of farm and home life. 

Need of the holiday. — There are busy times on the 
farm, to be sure, when "a day off" is not to be thought of. 
Every member of the family loyal to the farm interests will 
be found in his or her place doing the utmost to finish plant- 
ing the crop or to gather the harvest on time. But when 
the rush is past and the press of the season is over, relaxa- 
tion must come. The home games, neighborhood parties, 
lectures, chautauquas, entertainments, short courses, club 
meetings, and athletic events are as much a part of good 
farm management in a community as the selecting of the 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 757 

breeds of live stock, the planning of rotation of crops, or 
the administration of the activities of the farm. 

Planning for efficiency. — In order to live a life of high 
physical efficiency, therefore, certain social and recreational 
laws must be followed ; the farm home must be carefully 
organized with all these values in view. Its food supply 
must be abundant and well selected to provide a nutritious 
and balanced ration for each member of the family. The 
air breathed must be pure and free from taint at all times 
during the day and night and during every season, winter 
as well as summer. The water and milk supply must be 
carefully guarded that no danger can come from these 
sources. Flies and other insect pests must be reduced to 
the lowest possible minimum. The labor of the farm, in- 
tense and exhausting as it often is, must find relief in the 
relaxation of social mingling, athletic games and harm- 
less amusements of every good sort. The supplying of 
these conditions is an important part of good farm man- 
agement. 



758 AGRICULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XLVI 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 

Hozv to Remove Stains 

Iron rust. — Apply salt and lemon juice to the damp- 
ened spots. Place in the sun or near the fire. Then rinse 
or wash thoroughly. 

Burned cooking utensils. — To clean granite wares 
where mixtures have been burned on the surface, fill con- 
tainer half full of water, add good soap, washing powder, 
or baking soda. Bring water to a boiling point and scrub 
with a small brush. 

Tea, coffee or cocoa. — Wash with cold water, pour 
glycerine over spots and let stand for a few hours. Then 
wash with cold water and hard soap. If stains are fresh, 
pour over the stains boiling water from a height of four 
or five feet, after soaking. 

Blood. — Wash in warm water until stain disappears. 
Use ammonia to assist in dissolving the blood. Rub with 
naptha soap and soak in warm water. 

If heavy or new goods, as a new blanket, make a paste 
of raw starch and warm water. Spread on stain, and as 
fast as starch is discolored, make a new application. 

Bluing. — 1. Wash in boiling water. Boiling will 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 759 

draw out the spots of blue formed from imperfect bluing. 
Vinegar or dilute acid will assist, if necessary. This is 
effective for pale and black blues. 

2. Apply Javelle, and follow immediately with boil- 
ing water. Thorough rinsing will prevent Javelle from 
affecting fiber. A yellow cast may remain if the bluing has 
been an iron compound. This yellow cast or these spots 
may be taken out as iron rust. (See iron rust.) 

Chocolate. — Cover with borax, wash with cold water. 
Boiling water will remove trace of stain. 

Coffee. — Spread stained part over a bowl, pour boiling 
water on it from a height so as to strike the stain with 
force. Covering the spot with glycerine or borax will 
often assist in removing a stubborn stain. 

As a last resort, Javelle water may be used. 

Cream. — Wash in cold water, then in warm water and 
soap. Remove as grease. 

Ink. — 1. Moisten with salt and lemon juice, lay in 
the sun. 

2. Apply a few drops of oxalic or hydrochloric acid, 
follow with a few drops of Javelle, and rinse quickly with 
boiling water. 

3. Apply ammonium sulphide, wash with water, then 
wash with very dilute hydrochloric acid. Can be success- 
fully used on colors. 

Printers' ink. — 1. Spread stained portion over a bowl 
containing one quart of water and one teaspoon of borax. 
Apply acid, drop by drop until stain brightens, then dip 
stain at once into water. If not removed use same method 



760 AGRICULTURE AND 

until stain disappears. Care should be taken to use either 
borax or ammonia in rinsing water. 

2. Sprinkle stain with salt and moisten with lemon 
juice; lay in the sun. This method is slower and less likely 
to affect material. Either method will extract color. 

Milk. — Wash in cold water, then follow with soap. 

Mucus. — Mucus as found on handkerchiefs may be 
soaked in salt and water, then wash in warm water with 
ammonia or with soap. 

Paint. — 1. If paint is fresh, use at once soap and 
water if goods are washable. 

2. Wash the spot in gasoline, turpentine or benzine, 
remembering that they are inflammable and should not be 
near fire or lamplight.* 

Varnish. — Wet the stain with alcohol or turpentine 
and allow it to stand a few minutes, then wet again and 
sponge off with a clean cloth. Continue this until stain is 
removed. In case the color is affected by alcohol, sponge 
with chloroform ; but for blue material use diluted vinegar. 

Vaseline. — Wash a fresh vaseline stain with turpen- 
tine. Soaking may aid the removal. Stain can not be re- 
moved after it has been boiled. 

Wagon grease. — Rub either oil or lard on stain, then 
wash with warm water and soap. It will be found of help 
to keep a cloth or blotter under stain while rubbing on the 
oil. 

Wax. — Scrape off all that is possible, then place blot- 

*01d stains may be softened first with lard, oil, kero- 
sene, before using any of the remedies. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 761 

ting paper over spot and press with warm iron. This 
will soften wax and cause it to be absorbed by the paper. 
If there is color, as from colored candle wax, use alcohol 
to extract color after removing wax. Javelle may be needed 
to bleach the color. 

Fruit. — 1. Spread stained part over a bowl, pour 
boiling water on it from several feet above so as to strike 
the stain with force. Borax will assist in removing stub- 
born stains. 

2. Use Javelle solution and boiling water in equal quan- 
tities and immerse stained portion, allowing it to soak a 
few minutes, then rinse thoroughly with boiling water. 
This is best for peach stains, if alcohol fails. 

3. Borax and ammonia may be used instead of Javelle 
which destroys woolen, silks and colors. 

4. Apply a few drops of oxalic acid. Rinse well with 
hot water. 

Grass. — 1. Wash a fresh stain with cold water with- 
out soap, rub with molasses, let stand a few minutes. 
Wash out in warm water. 

2. Alcohol or ether will dissolve the green coloring 
matter when material can not be washed. 

Grease (oil). — 1. W^ash in warm water and soap. 
Remove traces of grease stains by bleaching with Javelle, 
(For white cottons and linens.) 

2. For delicate fabrics, apply ether, alcohol or benzine 
with a cloth, preferably of the same material, rubbing the 
stain lightly until all the reagent has evaporated. (These 
reagents are inflammable.) 



762 AGRICULTURE AND 

3. A mixture of equal quantities of acetone and ben- 
zote with Fuller's earth may be used without fear of water 
rings appearing or of changing color. Apply the powder 
to the stain and let stand several hours, then brush off 
lightly. 

Machine oil. — 1. Wash in soap and cold water. 

2. Rub stain with turpentine. 

Mildew. — 1. If the mildew is very fresh, and has not 
attacked the fiber, it will wash out in cold water. 

2. Apply potassium permanganate, then wash with 
warm water, use oxalic acid and then wash. 

3. Apply Javelle, then wash with hot water. 
Perspiration. — 1. Wash in warm water and soap, and 

if cotton or linen, place in sun to dry. (For white wash- 
ables.) 

2. Javelle water may be used for cottons and linens 
according to directions for white goods given above. 

3. Apply a dilute solution of sodium hydrosulphite and 
wash in water. To remove perspiration stains from 
colored goods with anything other than soap and water, 
means in most cases, removing color. Redyeing is the 
final remedy. The odor may be removed by chloroform. 

Scorch. — 1. For cottons and linens, hang in sunlight, 
and slight scorch will be removed. 

2. Wash in soap and water and place in sun. Scorch 
on woolens and silks means that the fiber is destroyed. 

Shoe polish. — 1. Use lard or grease, rubbing in well, 
then wash in warm water with soap. (For black paste.) 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 763 

2. Use hydrochloric acid and ammonia alternately. 
Wash with soap and warm water. (For bronze.) 

3. Use oxalic acid and ammonia alternately. Then 
wash with soap and warm water. (For tan.) 

Quatittty of Seed to Soiv Per Acre 

Alfalfa (broadcast) 15 to 20 lb. 

Alfalfa (drilled) 12 to 16 lb. 

Artichoke, Jerusalem 6 to 8 bu. 

Barley 8 .to 10 pk. 

Bean, field, small varieties 2 to 3 pk. 

Bean, field, large variety 5 to 6 pk. 

Beet 4 to 6 lb. 

Brome grass 12 to 15 lb. 

Broom corn 3 pk. 

Buckwheat 3 to 5 pk. 

Bur Clover 12 lb. 

Carrots (for stock) 4 to 6 lb. 

Clover, alsike 8 to 15 lb. 

Clover, Japan 12 lb. 

Clover, mammoth 12 to 15 lb. 

Clover, red (on small grain in spring) 8 to 10 lb. 

Clover, sweet 8 to 10 lb. 

Clover, white 4 to 6 lb. 

Clover, crimson 10 to 12 lb. 

Corn 5 to 9 lb. 

Cotton 1 to 3 bu. 

Cow-pea 1 to 1% bu. 

Cow-pea (drilled with corn) % to 1 bu. 

Cow-pea (for seed) 3 pk. 

Field pea, small varieties 2j/2 bu. 

Field pea, large varieties 3 to ZVz bu. 

Flax (for seed) 2 to 3 pk. 

Flax (for fiber) IVa to 2 bu. 

Hemp (broadcast) 2>y> io A pk. 

Hungarian grass (for hay) 2 pk. 

Johnson grass 1 to Wz bu. 

Kafir (drilled for grain) 5 to 8 lb. 



764 AGRICULTURE AND 

Kafir (for fodder) 50 to 70 lb. 

Kale 2 to 4 lb. 

Lupine P/^ to 2 bu. 

Mangel 5 to 8 lb. 

Millet, barnyard (drilled) 1 to 2 pk. 

Millet, German (for seed) 2 to 3 pk. 

Millet, pearl (for hay) 8 to 10 lb. 

Milo 4 to 6 lb. 

Oat grass, tall 30 lb. 

Oats 2 to 3 bu. 

Orchard grass 12 to IS lb. 

Parsnips 4 to 6 lb. 

Pop corn 3 lb. 

Potato, Irish 10 to 14 bu. 

Potato, Irish (cut to one or two eyes) 6 to 9 bu. 

Rape (drilled) 2 to 4 lb. 

Rape (broadcast) 4 to 8 lb. 

Redtop, recleaned 12 to 15 lb. 

Rice 1 to 3 bu. 

Rutabaga 3 to 5 lb. 

Rye 3 to 4 pk. 

Rye grass 2 to 3 bu. 

Sorghum (forage, broadcast) 1^ to 2 bu. 

Sorghum (for seed or sirup) 2 to 5 lb. 

Sorghum, saccharine (for silage or soiling, 

drilled) 6 to Vz bu. 

Soy-bean (drilled) 2 to 3 pk. 

Soy-bean (broadcast) 1 to 1% bu. 

Sugar beets 15 to 20 lb. 

Sugar cane 4 tons of cane 

Sunflower 10 to 15 lb. 

Timothy 15 to 25 \h: 

Timothy and clover (timothy) 10 lb. 

(clover) 4 lb. 

Turnip (broadcast) 2 to 4 lb. 

Turnip (drilled) 1 lb. 

Velvet bean 1 to 4 pk. 

Vetch, hairy (drilled) 1 bu. 

Vetch, hairy (broadcast) 1 to Ij^bu. 

Wheat 3 to 9 pk. 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 765 

Commodities for IVhich Bushel Weights Have Been Widely 
Adopted. 



a ^■s 



.2 c 2 i d ^ S 

t- eS <» 3 cj ^ o 

H M iS 3 (S tt M 



U. fe 






48 










42 




48 






32 




60 


Ala. 








60 










'56 




'76 




32 




60 


Ariz 






45 


55 


















32 




60 


Ark 




'so 




60 


• . . 


"14 


'20 


'52 


'56 


'is 


'70 


'60 


32 


'57 


60 


Cal 






50 










40 










32 




60 


Colo 






48 


"eo 




'ii 




52 




'50 


'70 


'eb 


32 


'57 


60 


Conn 




'<8 


48 


60 


"eb 




'20 


48 




50 




60 


32 


52 


60 


Del 




























. . • 


60 


D. C 
































Fla 




'JS 


'48 


'60 






'20 




'56 


'is 






32 


'56 


'eb 


Ga 






4T 


60 




'ii 


20 


'52 


56 


48 


'70 


'eb 


32 


57 


60 


HawaU . . . . 






48 




















32 




60 


Idaho 
































Ill 






'48 


'eb 




'ii 


'20 


'52 


'56 


'is 


'70 


'eb 


'32 


'57 


'eb 


Ind 






48 


60 




14 




50 


56 


SO 




60 


32 


48 


60 


Iowa 


(M 


4X 


48 


60 


'56 


H 


'20 


52 


56 


50 


'70 


60 


32 


57 


60 


Kaii3 


.. 60 


48 


48 


60 


56 


14 


20 


50 


56 




70 


60 


32 


57 


60 


Ky 






47 


60 




14 


20 


56 


56 


'5b 




60 


32 


57 


60 


La 






48 
























60 


Me 




"•ii 


48 


'eb 


'eb 






'is 




'sb 






'32 


'52 


60 


Md , 


;■. 'go 




48 


60 




ii 


'2b 




56 


48 


'70 


'eb 


32 


57 


60 


Mass 




'48 


48 


60 


'eb 




20 


'is 


50 


SO 




60 


32 


52 


60 


Mich 




48 


48 


60 




'ii 




48 


56 


50 


'70 


60 


32 


54 


60 


Minn 




50 


48 


60 


'so 


14 




50 


56 




70 


60 


32 


52 


60 


Mis3 






48 


60 




14 


"2b 


48 


56 


'is 


72 


60 


32 


57 


60 


Mo 




'48 


48 


60 




14 


20 


52 


56 


so 




60 


32 


57 


60 


Mont 




45 


48 


60 


'so 


14 


20 


52 


56 


so 


'76 


60 


32 


57 


60 


Nehr 


'.'. 'cb 


48 


48 


60 




14 


20 


52 


56 


50 


70 


60 


32 


57 


60 


Nev 


.. 60 


48 


48 


60 


'56 




20 


50 


56 


48 




60 


32 


57 


60 


N. H 




4S 


48 




GO 




20 


48 




50 




60 


32 


52 


60 


N. J 




50 


48 


"go 


GO 






50 








64 


30 


57 


60 


N. Mex. .. 
































N. y 




'48 


'48 


'eb 






'2b 


'is 




'sb 




'eb 


'32 


'57 


'eb 


N. C 


" '60 


48 


48 


60 




'ii 




50 




48 


'7b 


60 


32 


57 


60 


N. r»ak. ... 




50 


48 


60 


'eb 




'26 


42 


'56 




70 


60 


32 


52 


60 


Oiiio 




51) 


48 


60 


56 






50 


56 




6S 


60 


32 


55 


60 


Okla 


'.'. '60 


48 


48 


60 


60 


'ii 


'2b 


52 


56 


'50 


70 


60 


32 


57 


60 


Oreg 




45 


46 










42 








eo 


32 




60 


Pa 






47 










48 








60 


32 


'so 


eo 


R. I 




"48 


48 


'eb 


"sb 




'2b 


48 


'56 


'sb 


'7b 


60 


32 


50 


60 


s. c 




















48 












S. Dak. ... 






'48 


'eb 


'ca 




'2b 


'42 


'56 




'70 


'eb 


'32 


'52 


'eo 


Tenn 




'50 


48 


60 


50 


'ii 


20 


50 


56 




70 


60 


32 


56 


60 


Tex 




45 


48 


60 






20 


42 


56 




70 


60 


32 


57 


60 


Utah 
































Yt 




'46 


'48 


'62 


'60 






'is 








'en 


'30 


'52 


'eb 


Va 






48 


60 




'ii 




52 


'56 


'50 


'7b 


60 


32 


57 


60 


Wash 




'■45 


48 










42 








eo 


32 




60 


W. Va. ... 






48 


'eb 








52 








60 


32 




60 


Wis 




'so 


48 


60 


'sb 




"2b 


50 




'sb 




GO 


32 


'57 


60 


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768 AGRICULTURE AND 

Location of Colleges of Agriculture, Extetuion Departments 

and Experiment Stations 

Letters addressed to any of these institutions, request- 
ing information on agriculture or home economics subjects 
will be answered with courtesy. Help will be rendered or 
farm bulletins supplied when possible. 

__,,_,_, College of Extension Experiment 

STATE Agriculture Department Station 

Alabama Auburn Auburn Auburn 

Union town (Sub.) 
Tuskegee (negro) 

Arizona . Tucson . Tucson , Tucson 

Arkansas Fayetteville Fayetteville Fayetteville 

California . Berkeley Berkeley Berkeley 

Colorado Fort Collins . Fort Collins Fort Collins 

Connecticut Storrs Storrs Storrs 

New Haven 

Delaware Newark Newark Newark 

Florida Gainesville Gainesville Gainesville 

Georgia Athens . Athens Experiment 

Hawaii Honolulu Honolulu Honolulu 

Idaho Moscow Boise Moscow 

Illinois Urbana Urbana Urbana 

Indiana Lafayette Lafayette Lafayette 

Iowa Ames Ames Ames 

Kansas Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan 

Ken^^ucky Lexington Lexington Lexington 

Louisiana Baton Rouge Baton Rouge Baton Rouge 

New Orleans New Orleans Auburn Park (brch.) 

Calhoun (branch) 
Crowley (branch) 

Maine Orono . Orono Orono 

Maryland College Park College Park College Park 

Massachusetts . Amherst Amherst Amherst 

Michigan East Lansing East Lansing Eggt Lansing 

Minnesota St. Paul, 

Care W. Farm__ St. Paul gt. Paul 

Mississippi Agric. College Agric. College Agric. College 

Missouri Columbia Columbia Columbia 

Montana Bozeman Bozeman Bozeman 

Nebraska Lincoln _, Lincoln Lincoln 

Nevada Reno Reno Reno 

New Hampshire Durham Durham Durham 

New Jersey New Brunswick New Brunswick New Brunswick 

New Mexico State College State College State College 

New York Ithaca Ithaca Ithaca 

Geneva 

North Carolina West Raleigh West Raleigh West Raleigh 

North Dakota Agric. College Agric. College Agric. College 

Ohio Columbus Columbus Wooster 

Oklahoma Stillwater Stillwater Stillwater 

Oregon Corvallis Corvallis Corvallis 

Pennsylvania State College State College State College 

Porto Rico Mayaguez Mayaguez Mayaguez 

Rio Piedras (Sub.) 



THE FARMING BUSINESS 769 



Oollese of Extension Experiment 

STATE Agriculture Department Station 

South Carolina Clcmson College Clemson College—. Clemson College 

South Dakota . Brookings Brookings Brookings 

Tennessee . Knosville Knoxville Knoxville 

Texas College Station College Station College Station 

Utah Logan Logan Logan 

Vermont Burlington Burlington Burlington 

Virginia Blacksburg Blacksburg Blaeksburg 

Hampton Hampton (negro). Norfolk (branch) 

Washington Pullman Pullman Pullman 

West Virginia jrorgantown Morgantown Morgantown 

Wisconsin Madison Madison Madison 

Wyoming Laramie Laramie Laramie 



THE END 



INDEX 



INDEX 



ACCOUNTS, FARM: 
books for, 50. 
methods of keeping-, 42. 
samples of, 45. 

AGRICULTURE: 
American, 1. 
and rainfall, 166. 
crops suital3le for southern, 

152. 
in the South, eh. on, 145. 
in Western states, ch. on, 162. 
"ten commandments" of, 30. 

ALFALFA: 

as forage, 27S. 

as soil renewer, 281. 

chapter on, 277. 

chief region of, 283. 

enemies of, 292. 

feeding value of. 279. 

harvesting- of, 289. 

soil requirements for, 284. 

ANIMALS: 

farm and agriculture, 513. 
food supplying, 516. 
products of, 518. 
work of farm, 515. 

APHIS: 

corn root, 66. 

ARSENATE OF LEAD SPRAT, 
404. 

AUTOMOBILE, THE: 
and good roads, 689. 
care of, 684. 
chapter on, 676. 
dangers from use of, 681. 
driving, 686. 
farm uses of, 678. 
production of, 692. 
women and, 688. 

BABCOCK: 

steps in test, 531. 

test for butter fat, 530. 

BACTERIA: 

nitrifying, 252. 



77Z 



BEEF: 

breeds of cattle, 544, 547. 

cuts, 546. 

feeding cattle, 550. 

BIRDS: 

and their food, 431. 

as friends, 429, 434. 

chapter on, 429. 

harmful, 439. 

methods of protecting, 440. 

useful varieties of, 432. 

BORDEAUX MIXTURE, 399. 

BUTTER: 

judging of, 542. 



CANNING FRUITS AND VEGE- 
TABLES: 
chapter on, 328, 363. 
cold pack, 346. 
equipment for, 334. 
methods of, 331. 
recipes for, 346, 363. 
sirups and brines for, 340. 
special directions for, 372. 
tables for, 343. 
technique of, 357. 

CATTLE: 

beef, breeds of, 544. 
chapter on, 520. 
dairy, 520. 
diseases of, 551. 
feeding, 550. 
judging age of, 558. 
score-card for beef, 546. 
tick fever in, 553. 
tuberculosis in, 551. 

CHICKENS: 

breeds of, 622. 
chapter on, 619. 
diseases of, 639. 
feeding for eggs, 631. 
feeding of, 630. 
houses for, 634. 
the raising of, 620. 

CHINCH-BUGS, 127, 142. 



774 



INDEX 



CLOVERS, THE: 
alsike, 274. 
as forage, 263. 
as soil renewer, 264. 
chapter on, 263. 
crimson, 274. 
enemies of red, 271. 
harvesting of, 270. 
impurities of seed, 268. 
red-clover plant, 263, 266. 
successful growing of, 265. 
white, 273. 

CLUB WORK: 

and the schools, 740. 
chapter on, 732. 
leadership for, 739. 
projects taken up in, 736. 
purpose of, 732. 
results from, 738. 
terms used in, 742. 

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER: 
application of, 512. 
chapter on, 498. 
increased use of, 498. 
lime, 506. 
nitrogen, 510. 
phosphorus, 501. 
potassium, 508. 
use in foreign countries, 499. 

CORN: 

barren stalks, 62. 

binder, 99. 

chapter on, 58. 

cultivation of, 95. 

depth of planting, 94, 

ear worins, 67. 

enemies of, 63. 

for silo, 101. 

grading seed, 90. 

harvesting and storing, 97. 

"hogging down," 100. 

judging, 82. 

plant, the, 59. 

preparing seed for planter, 89. 

root aphis, 66. 

root worm, 63. 

roots and moisture, 92. 

score-card, 83. 

seed bed, 91. 

seed saving, 69. 

seed selection bed, 77. 

seed testing box, 86. 

shocker, the, 99. 

smut, 69. 

stand of, 61. 

suckers, 62. 

testing seed, 80. 

time for gathering seed, 71. 

time for planting, 94. 

types of, 75. 

uses of, 105, 



CORN— Continued: 

uses of stalk, 106. 
varieties of, 77. 

COTTON: 

chapter on, 191. 
enemies of, 200. 
grades of, 194. 
harvesting, 198. 
raising the crop, 195. 
region of, 193. 

COUNTY AGENT: 

financial support of, 725. 
how to secure, 727. 
the agricultural, 720. 
work of, 722. 

COW: 

dairy type of, 526. 
feeding of dairy, 537. 
judging the dairy, 529. 
milk tests of the, 530. 

COW-PEAS: 

as forage, 296. 

as soil renovator, 296. 

plant, 294. 

DAIRY: 

breeds, 532. 

cow score-card, 529. 

profitable and unprofitable 

cows, 521. 
types of cows, 526. 

DIVERSIFIED FARMING: 
advantages of, 151. 
in the South, 147. 

DRAINAGE: 
soil, 478. 
surface, 481. 
under, 483. 

DRY-FARMING: 

and farm management, 172. 
areas in United States, 167. 
crops adapted to, 173. 
in the West, 165. 
principles involved in, 168. 

EGGS: 

for hatching, 626. 
producing and marketing, 

628, 633. 
rules for production of, 635. 

EXTENSION EDUCATION: 
agricultural publications, 727. 
and the farmer, ch. on, 708. 



INDEX 



775 



EXTENSION EDUCATION— 
Continued: 
help rendered by, 711. 
method of, 712. • 
short courses, 719. 
various agencies for, 709. 

FARM MANAGEMENT: 

and high grade products, 28. 
and profit, 14, 21. 
chapter on, 13. 
need of specialists in, 31. 

FARMER: 

agencies that help the, 9. 
responsibility upon the, 4, 6. 
the American, 3. 

FARMING: 

as a career, 12. 
diversified in South, 147. 
sugar, chapter on, 220. 
types of, 17. 

FARMERS' INSTITUTES: 
program of, 717. 
purposes of, 716. 

FERTILIZERS, COMMERCIAL, 

498. 

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE, 
556. 

FORAGE CROPS: 
chapter on, 246. 
importance of, 242. 
region of, 247, 252. 

FUNGICIDES. 399. 

GARDEN, THE FRUIT: 
apple score-card, 396. 
chapter on, 380. 
citrus orchards, 381. 
grapefruit in, 384. 
important fruits in, 390. 
lemon in, 384. 
marketing from, 389. 
orange in, 382. 
picking and packing in. 387. 
soil for, 385. 
sprays for, 399. 

GARDEN, THE VEGETABLE: 
chapter on, 304. 
cultivation of, 307, 310. 
insect enemies of, 314. 
location and soil for, 305. 
plan for, 306, 308, 316. 
planting time. 309. 
profit from, 319. 
sprays for, 399. 



GRASSES: 

for meadows, 255. 
for pastures, 258. 
uses of, 247. 
varieties of, 246. 

GRASSHOPPERS, 127. 

HEALTH: 

chapter on, 748. 
cost of sickness, 748. 
factors determining, 750. 
flies and, 754. 
recreation and, 756. 
rural, and hygiene, 749. 
the farm table and, 753. 

HESSIAN FLY, THE, 126. 

HOGS: 

breeds of, 586. 

care of, 587. 

chapter on, 585. 

chief region for, 585. 

diseases of, 599. 

feeding, 592. 

houses, 588. 

prevention of cholera in, C02. 

HOME, THE FARM: 

beautifying the grounds, 658. 
chapter on, 645. 
equipment for, 652. 
grounds and wood lot, chap- 
ter on, 658. 
kitchen, 653. 
library, 729. 
plan for, 651. 
wood lot, 661. 

HORSES: 

breeds of, 563. 
care of, 577. 
chapter on, 559. 
classes of, 560. 
defects of, 571. 
determining age of, 574. 
feeding of, 579. 
judging of, 566. 
leading states for, 559. 
score-card for, 567. 

HOTBED, THE, 310. 

HUMUS, 448. 

IMPLEMENTS: 

farm and mechanics, chapter 

on. 667. 
stable and feeding devices, 

671. 

INOCULATION: 

of soil for alfalfa, 287. 



776 



INDEX 



INSECTICIDES, 399. 
IRRIGATION: 

causes necessitating', 17(5. 

chapter on, 176. 

crop management under, 185. 

dangers of over, 188. 

reclamation by, 178. 

systems of, 180. 

KEROSENE EMULSION, 405. 
KING ROAD DRAG, THE, 701. 

LEGUMES: 

chapter on, 294. 

for meadows, 255. 

for pastures, 258. ' 

uses of, 250. 

varieties of, 294. 

LIME: 

use of on soils, 402. 
LIME SULPHUR SPRAT. 402. 

MACHINERY, 667. 

MANURES: 

and fertility, 490. 
application of, 493. 
barnyard, 489. 
chapter on, 488. 
fermentation in, 492. 
green, 496. 

preventing loss from, 491. 
value of farm, 488. 

MEADOWS: 

care of, 256. 
chapter on, 254. 
grasses for, 255. 
permanent, 257. 
requirements of, 254. 
seed mixtures for, 256. 

MILK: 

Babcock test, 530. 

cooling of, 542. 

producing clean, 539. 

tests for the dairy cow, 527, 

530. 
tuberculosis in, 550. 

MILKING MACHINES, 541. 

MULES: 

score-card for, 582. 

NITROGEN: 

commercial fertilizers, 510. 
gathering bacteria, 252. 
in soils. 463. 



NUTS: 

and fruits, chapter on, 380. 
grown in United States, 393. 



OATS: 

chapter on, 137. 

cultivation of, 138, 

enemies of, 142. 

harvesting and threshing, 140. 

importance of, 131. 

types of, 134. 

OFFICE, FARM AND AC- 
COUNTS: 
chapter on, 35. 
equipment for, 37, 55. 
necessity for, 35. 
suggestions for, 57. 

PARIS GREEN SPRAY, 405. 

PASTURES: 
care of, 260. 
grasses for, 259. 
mixtures of seed for, 260. 
requirements of, 258. 

PEANUT, THE: 
plant, 301. 
uses of, 302. 

PHOSPHORUS: 

fertilizers, 501. 
in soils, 465. 

POTASSIUM: 
fertilizers, 508. 
in soils, 466. 

POTATOES: 

as a farm crop, 207. 

chapter on, 205. 

cutting the seed, 215. 

disinfecting seed, 217, 219. 

enemies, 216, 218. 

planting, 210. 

region, 207. 

selection of seed, 212. 

soil and seed bed for, 208. 

storing of, 212. 

the plant, 205. 

POULTRY: 

as a farm industry, 620. 

breeds of, 622. 

chapter on, 619. 

diseases of, 639. 

housing of, 634. 

increasing demands for, 619 

leading states for, 620. 

producing, 626. 



INDEX 



177 



"RAG DOLL" SEED TESTER, 



RATION: 

balanced for beef, 551. 
balanced for dairy cows, 538. 
balanced for hogs, 597. 
for fattening- chickens, 631. 
for laying- hens, 631. 
for sheep, 617. 

RESIN LIME SPRAY, 406. 

ROADS: 

chapter on, 695. 
club projects, 706. 
construction of earth, 700. 
importance of public, 695. 
location of, 699. 
maintenance of earth, 702. 
types of, 697. 

ROPE -TYING, 672. 

ROTATION OF CROPS: . 
and fertility, 468. 
plan for, 237, 470. 
rules for, 471. 

RUST: 
oat, 142. 
wheat, 122. 

SAWDUST SEED TESTERS, 86. 

SHEEP: 

agricultural importance of, 

607. 
breeds of, 609. 
chapter on, 607. 
feeding- of, 615. 
score-card for judging-, 612. 

SILO, THE, 101. 

SMUT: 
corn, 69. 
oats, 143.. 
treatment for wheat, 122. 

SOIL: 

acid and lining-, 472. 
barnyard manure and, 488. 
capacity of for water, 476. 
chapter on, 442. 
classes of, 444. 
drainag-e, 478, 481. 
erosion of, 453. 
fertility and legumes, 472. 
fertility and manure, 489. 
fertility of, 4, 457, 459, 468. 



SOIL — Continued : 

forms of water in, 477. 
management in South, 156. 
management in West, 164. 
moisture, chapter on, .474, 
organic matter in, 447. 
origin of, 442. 
structure of, 451. 
texture of, 450. 
tillage and water, 477. 

SOY-BEANS: 

feeding value of, 301. 

SPRAYS, GARDEN AND OR- 
CHARD: 
chapter on, 399. 
compounds for, 401. 
machine for, 407. 

SUGAR: 

beets, 225. 
chapter on, 220. 
maple, 230. 
producing cane, 223. 
regions, 221. 
sorghum, 229. 
varieties of plant, 220. 

TILE, 484. 

TOBACCO: 

chapter on, 233. 
classes of, 235. 
enemies of, 242. 
harvesting and curing, 242. 
history of culture, 233. 
producing the crop, 236. 
region, 234. 

TOMATO, THE: 

as a garden crop, 321. 

chapter on, 321. 

culture, 323. 

harvesting and marketing, 

325. 
pruning and staking, 324. 
varieties of, 322. 

TRACTOR, THE FARM, 689. 

TREE ENEMIES, 665. 

TUBERCULOSIS: 
in cattle, 551, 553. 
in hogs, 600. 
tuberculin test for, 552. 

VEGETABLES. (See Garden.) 

VETCH: 

common, 297. 
hairy, 298. 
types of, 297. 



778 



INDEX 



WEEDS: 

birds as enemies of, 429, 436. 
chapter on, 409. 
classiflcation of, 409. 
damage done by, 410. 
fighting the, 414, 427. 
killing in corn, 93. 
means of spreading, 412. 
table of common farm, 416. 

WHEAT: 

chapter on, 108. 

diseases and enemies of, 121. 

grading, 116. 

harvesting, 109, 119. 



WHEAT— Continued: 

importance of, 109. 
improvement of, 128 
planting, 119. 
score-card for, 130. 
seed bed for, 117. 
selecting seed, 118. 
spring, 115. 
types of, 113. 
winter, 115. 

WOOD LOT: 

chapter on, 658. 
enemies of, 665. 
the farm, 661. 



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